Frontispiece 

VIEWS  OF  THE  CALORIMETER  LABORATORY,  WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY,  WHERE  PRO- 
FESSOR ATWATER  MADE  His  FAMOUS  EXPERIMENTS  IN  NUTRITION.  SEE  PLAN 
FACING  PAGE  49.  FROM  YEARBOOK,  1904,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE 


NUTRITION    AND    DIET 

A    TEXTBOOK 

FOR 

SECONDARY    SCHOOLS 


BY 


EMMA   CONLEY 

DIRECTOR   OF    DOMESTIC    SCIENCE,    STATE    NORMAL   SCHOOL 
OSHKOSH,    WISCONSIN 


NEW   YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN     BOOK    COMPANY 


, 


COPYRIGHT,  1913,  BY 
EMMA  CONLEY. 

COPYRIGHT,  1913,  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


CONLEY,    NUTRITION   AND   DIET. 

W.  P.  I 


PREFACE 

DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  as  taught  in  the  schools  of  this  coun- 
try has  three  distinct  phases  :  practical  work  in  foods,  com- 
monly called  cooking,  and  taught  in  the  school  kitchen ; 
experimental  work  in  foods,  taught  in  the  chemical  labora- 
tory ;  and  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  concerning  foods, 
nutrition,  and  diet,  and  its  correlation  with  the  knowledge 
gained  in  the  kitchen  and  laboratory. 

The  first  phase  of  the  work  is  usually  formulated  in 
some  type  of  cook  book,  the  second  in  a  laboratory  man- 
ual, and  the  third  phase,  because  of  the  lack  of  suitable 
textbooks  for  secondary  schools,  has  been  presented  by  the 
lecture  method. 

While  several  good  college  texts  are  published,  there 
has  been  no  book  suited  to  the  needs  of  high  school  pupils, 
and  the  result  has  been  that  the  teacher  has  been  obliged 
to  dictate  her  college  notes,  adapted  in  some  form,  to  her 
pupils.  These  notes,  in  subject  matter  and  language,  have 
been  hard  for  the  immature  mind  to  grasp,  and  so  much 
time  had  to  be  given  to  dictation  that  no  time  was  left  for 
recitation  or  for  practical  work  in  carrying  out  the  plans 
formulated  by  the  teacher. 

The  lecture  method  has  no  place  in  the  secondary  school. 
Time  spent  in  copying  notes  in  class,  and  then  recopying 
in  ink  into  a  notebook  is  worse  than  wasted,  and  it  leaves 
no  time  for  supplementary  reading  matter  to  which  the 
teacher  could  refer  the  pupil. 

304752 


4  PREFACE 

Such  has  been  the  experience  of  the  author  of  this  book, 
and  as  a  result  of  this  experience,  the  subject  matter  pre- 
pared, formerly  dictated  to  classes,  copied  into  notebooks, 
and  learned  for  recitation  by  the  pupils,  has  been  put  into 
form  and  appears  in  this  volume. 

The  subject  matter  is  intended  for  classes  that  have  had 
at  least  one  half-year's  work  in  practical  cooking  and  some 
knowledge  of  foods.  If  cooking  is  taught  as  a  high  school 
subject,  this  book  may  be  used  to  complement  the  work  in 
cooking.  In  many  schools  a  certain  number  of  periods  a 
week  are  allowed  for  study  and  recitation,  and  a  certain 
number  for  practical  work,  in  kitchen  or  laboratory. 

This  little  volume,  "  Nutrition  and  Diet,"  is  designed  to 
supplement  the  practical  and  experimental  work  and  unify 
the  whole  so  that  the  student  will  know  proper  foods  and 
the  relation  of  food  to  health,  strength,  and  efficiency. 

Many  tables  used  in  this  volume  are  taken  from  United 
States  Government  bulletins  ;  in  fact,  unless  credit  is  other- 
wise given,  all  the  percentage  composition  tables  are  taken 
from  the  Government  publications,  as  are  also  the  tables 
called  the  Atwater  Tables.  All  tables  and  menus  in  Chap- 
ter VI,  Part  One,  were  worked  out  by  the  author's  classes 
in  1912,  and  the  meals  were  served  exactly  as  they  are 
outlined. 

EMMA  CONLEY. 

OSHKOSH,  WISCONSIN. 


CONTENTS 

PART  ONE 
CHAPTER   I 

PACK 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY  AND  OF  FOODS         .        .        7 

CHAPTER   II 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  FOODS.    OCCURRENCE  AND  USES       .        .      18 

CHAPTER   III 
DIGESTION 36 

CHAPTER   IV 

NUTRITIVE  AND  FUEL  VALUE  OF  FOODS.    DIGESTIBILITY        .      43 

CHAPTER  V 
THE  BALANCED  MEAL 58 

CHAPTER  VI 

PLANNING  o/  MEALS.    TABLES  SHOWING  CALORIES  IN  FOODS. 

MENUS 66 

PART   TWO 

CHAPTER   I 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  FOODS  FOR  DETAILED  STUDY    .        .        .103 

5 


6  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   II 

PAGE 

CEREALS     *        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .108 

CHAPTER   III 
LEGUMES -.128 

CHAPTER   IV 
ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 134 

CHAPTER   V 
GREEN  VEGETABLES  AND  FRUITS 145 

CHAPTER  VI 

BEVERAGES  AND  CONDIMENTS    .        .        .        .        .        .        .152 

CHAPTER   VII 
ANIMAL  FOODS 156 

CHAPTER   VIII 
EGGS 174 

CHAPTER   IX 
MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 180 

INDEX  201 


NUTRITION   AND   DIET 

PART  I 

CHAPTER  I 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY  AND  OF 

FOODS 

Introductory.  —  The  medicine  of  the  future  is  preven- 
tion. The  time  is  coming  when  it  will  be  considered  as 
gross  ignorance  or  carelessness  to  be  sick  as  it  now  is  to  be 
unable  to  read  and  write.  Almost  every  magazine  and 
newspaper  maintains  a  department,  conducted,  not  as  of 
old,  to  prescribe  popular  remedies  for  common  ills,  but  to 
teach  people  how  to  keep  well. 

To-day  we  have  little  sympathy  for  the  dyspeptic  after 
we  see  him  consume  foods  that  are  almost  indigestible  to 
the  average  person.  We  know  that  every  case  of  typhoid 
fever  is  due  to  criminal  carelessness  on  the  part  of  some 
one.  We  know  that  if  the  sufferer  had  had  plenty  of 
nourishing  food  and  an  abundance  of  fresh  air,  nearly 
every  case  of  tuberculosis  could  be  prevented.  We  know 
that  many  diseases  are  due  to  lack  of  attention  to  the 
proper  elimination  of  the  wastes  of  the  system,  and  that 
rheumatism  is  tissue  poisoning.  In  fact,  some  one  has 
well  said,  that  if  we  looked  after  breathing,  digestion,  and 
elimination  of  waste,  we  should  never  be  sick. 

It  is  necessary  to  have  some  knowledge  to  look  after  the 
different  functions  of  the  body.  We  must  know  the  com- 
position of  the  body  and  what  substances  it  is  made  of, 

7 


8  'COMPOSITION   OF   THE   HUMAN  BODY 

•    - 1       * 
*{•''<•  i  •  ,        *  *        ' 

how  the  body  secures  these  substances,  in  what  form  they 
are  best  supplied,  where  they  are  found,  how  they  act 
when  taken  into  the  body,  how  the  body  rids  itself  of  their 
oxidation  products,  and  in  what  foods  substances  which 
the  body  lacks  are  to  be  found. 

To  acquire  this  knowledge  we  must  take  short  journeys 
into  the  fields  of  biology,  physiology,  chemistry;  but  the 
facts  are  easily  learned  and  the  reward  is  health. 

Domestic  science  is  no  longer  mere  cooking.  It  is  a 
mastery  of  the  principles  of  cooking  and  their  application 
to  foods.  It  is  vastly  more  than  that.  It  is  a  study  of 
foods,  —  their  composition,  structure,  nutritive  value,  and 
place  in  the  diet,  —  so  that  when  a  food  is  to  be  served,  we 
know  what  it  furnishes  to  the  body,  what  effect  heat  has 
upon  it,  what  conditions  affect  its  digestibility,  and  in 
what  proportions  it  is  best  to  serve  it.  In  short,  domestic 
science  is  the  study  of  foods  so  as  to  know  how  to  nourish 
the  body. 

To  find  how  the  body  is  best  served,  we  must  know  its 
composition,  the  composition  of  the  substances  with  which 
we  expect  to  nourish  it,  and  how  these  substances  act  in 
the  body.  If  we  do  not  know  these  things,  all  knowledge 
of  cooking  is  of  little  avail. 

Food  Defined  and  Classified.  —  Food  is  any  substance 
which,  when  taken  into  the  body,  supplies  it  with  energy 
or  builds  tissue.  Foods  are  oxidized  or  burned  in  the  body, 
just  as  wood  or  coal  is  burned  outside  the  body,  and  that 
oxidation  produces  energy.  They  produce  just  as  much 
energy  when  burned  in  the  body  as  fat  or  sugar  would 
produce  if  burned  in  a  stove  or  in  the  chemical  laboratory. 
The  energy  produced  in  the  body  by  the  oxidation  of  foods 
is  used  to  maintain  the  normal  temperature  of  the  body; 


COMPOSITION  OF   THE  HUMAN  BODY  9 

and  to  carry  on  the  vital  processes,  —  as  digestion,  circu- 
lation, respiration;    and  for  work  and  activity. 

The  body  is  made  up  of  an  aggregation  of  cells,  and  col- 
lections of  these  cells,  having  special  functions,  make  up 
the  tissues  and  organs  of  the  body.  The  cells  and  tissues 
of  the  body  are  being  constantly  worn  out,  and  new  ones 
must  be  built  up  from,  or  out  of,  the  food  taken  into  the 
body.  The  burning  of  food  and  cells  in  the  body  is  called 
oxidation,  and  constitutes  the  vital  process  called  life. 

Not  all  foods  can  build  tissue.  The  cells  and  tissues  of 
the  body  contain  nitrogen,  and  hence  the  only  foods  that 
will  build  tissues  are  those  which  contain  nitrogen.  A 
food  which  contains  carbon  will  yield  energy  when  oxidized. 

Foods  are  grouped  into  five  classes :  proteins,  fats,  car- 
bohydrates, mineral  matter,  and  water.  Proteins  contain 
carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  sulphur.  Fats 
and  carbohydrates  contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 
Proteins,  mineral  matter,  and  water  build  tissue ;  fats, 
carbohydrates,  and  proteins  yield  energy. 

Foods  are  also  classified  as  animal  and  vegetable  foods. 
Examples  of  animal  foods  are  meat,  fish,  eggs,  cheese,  milk, 
fat.  Examples  of  vegetable  foods  are  potatoes,  carrots, 
rice,  wheat,  peas,  apples. 

Structure  of  Foods.  Animal  and  Vegetable  Cells.  - 
All  foods,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  are  similar  in 
structure  in  that  they  are  made  up  of  innumerable  cells 
held  together  by  some  intercellular  substance.  An  animal 
cell  consists  of  a  tiny  mass  of  protoplasm  having  a  center 
called  a  nucleus  and  sometimes  surrounded  by  a  cell  wall. 
The  nucleus  may  be  called  the  life  center  of  the  cell,  be- 
cause it  controls  growth  and  reproduction;  the  proto- 
plasm contains  the  nourishment.  The  protoplasm  and  the 


10 


COMPOSITION  OF   THE  HUMAN  BODY 


nucleus  are  composed  of  protein,   mineral    matter,    and 
water,  and  they  get  these  substances  for  their  growth  and 

reproduction  from  the 
blood.  The  digested  food 
is  absorbed  and  becomes 
part 
thus 


of    the    blood,    and 
reaches    the    cells, 
where    it     becomes    new 
cells,  or  is   oxidized  and 
produces  energy. 

Animal  cells  are  held 
together  by  an  inter- 
cellular substance  called 
connective  tissue.  Some- 
times fat  is  found  between  the  cells.  Fat  is  stored  in  cell 
walls  of  connective  tissue,  and  forms  adipose  or  fatty  tis- 
sue. All  animal  tissue,  whether  bone,  nerve,  or  muscle,  is 
made  up  of  cells,  composed  of  substances  which  are  formed 
from  the  food  which  is 
eaten  and  which  is  carried 
to  the  cells  in  the  blood. 
Vegetable  cells  consist 
of  a  nucleus  or  life  cen- 
ter, and  a  network  of 
protoplasm ;  inclosed  in 


CELLS  FROM  HUMAN  BODY  (Magnified). 

a,  a  colored  cell  from  the  eye;  b,  a  white  blood 
cell;  c,  a  connective  tissue  cell;  d,  a  cell  from 
lining  of  the  mouth;  e,  liver  cells;  /,  a  muscle 
cell  from  the  intestine.  (From  Overton's  Ap- 
plied Physiology.) 


this  network  are  starch 

grains,    mineral    matter, 

and  water.     The  whole 

is  surrounded  by  a  wall 

of  cellulose — a  substance 

similar  in  composition  to  starch,  but  unlike  it  in  structure. 

Cellulose  also  holds  vegetable  cells  together. 


FAT  TISSUES  (Magnified). 

Connective  tissue  cells  from  pockets  in  which  the 
liquid  fat  is  stored. 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE   HUMAN   BODY 


II 


The  protoplasm  in  vegetable  cells  consists  of  protein, 
and  is  similar  in  structure  to  that  in  animal  cells.  In 
some  foods  it  is  so  slight  that  there  is  scarcely  a  trace  of 
it,  in  others  it  makes  up  from  one  seventh  to  one  half  of 
the  solid  nutrients.  Starch  or  sugar,  and  some  mineral 
matter,  are  found  in  all  vegetable  cells.  Starch  is  the  form 
in  which  the  nourishment  is  stored  in  the  plant  for  the 
seed.  When  the  seed 
germinates,  the  starch  is 
turned  to  sugar,  and  in 
this  form  it  circulates  in 
the  plant.  Starch  may 
be  called  stored  nourish- 
ment and  sugar  circulat- 
ing nourishment.  Vege- 
table foods  are  best  for 
human  consumption  be- 
fore they  begin  to  ger- 
minate. Fat  is  found 
in  some  vegetable  cells. 
The  cellulose  which  surrounds  the  cell  cannot  be  digested 
in  the  human  stomach  and  must  be  softened  by  cooking  to 
free  the  inclosed  starch  and  protein. 

Uses  of  Foods.  —  Every  cell  in  the  body  is  constructed 
out  of  the  food  taken  into  the  body.  Food  is  made  over 
in  the  body  into  flesh,  bone,  nerve,  and  blood.  Food  is 
also  oxidized  in  the  body  and  furnishes  energy  needed  for 
work  and  activity  and  to  carry  on  the  vital  processes,  and 
to  maintain  the  right  bodily  temperature.  The  complete 
food  for  any  animal  must  contain  all  the  elements  of  which 
its  tissues  and  all  the  fluids  of  its  body  are  composed,  and 
it  must  contain  them  in  the  right  proportion.  If  they  are 


A  THIN  SLICE  OF  POTATO  (Magnified). 

a,  albuminous  pockets;    b,  starch   grains  in  the 
pockets.     (From  Overton's  Applied  Physiology.) 


12  COMPOSITION   OF   THE   HUMAN   BODY 

not  supplied  in  the  proper  proportion,  the  body  will  be 
weakened  because  of  the  deficiency.  A  familiar  example 
of  this  impairment  of  tissues  is  seen  in  the  disease  called 
rickets.  In  this  disease  not  enough  mineral  matter  is  sup- 
plied to  children,  and  the  bones  are  soft  and  cannot  bear 
the  weight  of  the  body  without  bending  out  of  shape. 
When  lime  is  supplied  in  the  right  proportion,  the  bones 
become  hard. 

The  words  Element  and  Compound  are  terms  used  in  chem- 
istry to  distinguish  different  forms  of  matter.  An  element 
is  a  substance  which  has  not  been  separated  into  other  sub- 
stances. A  compound  is  a  substance  composed  of  two  or 
more  elements  united  in  definite  proportion:  Example. 
Iron  is  a  substance  which  has  not  been  separated  into  other 
substances.  Water  is  a  combination  of  two  substances, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  united  in  the  definite  proportion  of 
two  parts  of  hydrogen  to  one  part  of  oxygen  (H^O).  Iron 
is  an  element ;  water  is  a  compound. 

Elements  found  in  the  Body.  —  There  are  eighty  or 
more  elements  known  to  the  chemical  world,  and  thirteen 
of  these  are  found  to  make  up  the  human  body.  They  are 
oxygen  (62^  %),  carbon  (21 J  %),  hydrogen  (10%),  nitrogen 
(3  %)•  Calcium,  phosphorus,  potassium,  chlorine,  sodium, 
magnesium,  iron,  sulphur,  and  fluorine  make  up  the  remain- 
ing 3  per  cent.  There  are,  also,  traces  of  iodine,  silicon, 
and  several  other  elements.  All  these  elements  are  de- 
rived from  the  food  taken  into  the  body,  and  each  one 
has  its  use  and  is  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  a 
healthy  body. 

Occurrence  in  the  Body. -- Though  the  body  is  made 
up  of  these  thirteen  elements,  they  do  not  occur  as 
elements,  but  as  compounds,  and  as  compounds  they 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE   HUMAN   BODY  13 

form  the  various  cells  and  tissues  of  the  body.  Albumin, 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur, 
and  sometimes  phosphorus,  is  found  in  all  the  cells  of  the 
body.  It  enters  into  the  structure  of  the  brain,  nerves, 
muscles,  and  blood.  Fat,  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  is  found  all  over  the  body,  covering  the  mus- 
cles, surrounding  internal  organs,  and  between  the  cells. 
Sugar,  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  is  found 
in  the  blood,  liver,  and  tissues.  Lime,  composed  of  calcium 
and  oxygen,  is  found  in  the  bone,  blood,  and  nerves.  Salt, 
composed  of  sodium  and  chlorine,  is  found  in  the  tissues 
and  fluids  of  the  body.  Iron  is  found  in  the  haemoglobin 
of  the  red  blood  corpuscles,  and  gives  them  power  to 
carry  oxygen  to  all  the  cells  of  the  body. 

Occurrence  in  Foods.  —  All  foods  which  we  eat,  whether 
animal  or  vegetable,  are  also  compounds  of  some  of  the 
thirteen  elements  united  in  different  forms  and  proportions. 
Proteins  contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 
sulphur.  Carbohydrates  contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxy- 
gen. Fats  contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  Water 
contains  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  The  mineral  matter  oc- 
curs in  combination  with  the  organic  substances,  as  pro- 
teins and  carbohydrates.  These  foods  are  taken  into  the 
body  through  the  mouth  and  carried  to  the  stomach  and 
intestines,  where  they  undergo  chemical  change  and  are 
reduced  to  a  soluble  form,  so  that  they  can  enter  the  blood 
and  be  carried  to  the  cells,  where  they  are  made  into  the 
issues  of  the  body  or  are  oxidized  for  energy. 

The  only  way  that  the  body  can  receive  the  materials 
out  of  which  to  build  its  tissues,  supply  the  energy  needed 
for  living,  and  secure  enough  heat  to  maintain  normal 
temperature,  is  through  the  food  eaten.  These  demands 


14  COMPOSITION  OF   THE  HUMAN  BODY 

of  the  body  must  be  supplied,  or  the  health  and  the 
working  efficiency  of  the  individual  are  impaired.  For 
these  reasons,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  all  peo- 
ple should  have  some  knowledge  of  the  composition  of 
the  various  foods  and  what  elements  they  will  supply. 
The  best  example  of  the  service  such  knowledge  would 
render  to  the  individual  can  be  seen  from  the  fact  that 
growing  girls  are  subject  to  anemia,  a  disease  or  condition 
due  to  the  lack  of  iron  in  the  red  blood  corpuscles. 
Almost  the  only  way  that  the  human  body  can  assimilate 
iron  is  when  it  is  in  combination  with  some  organic  sub- 
stance, as  in  food.  A  study  of  foods  would  show  which 
contain  the  desired  iron,  and  the  diseased  or  abnormal 
condition  could  be  readily  remedied. 

Another  example  which  shows  the  importance  of  this 
knowledge  is  furnished  by  the  fact  that  if  any  element  is 
not  supplied  in  the  right  proportions  needed  for  all  the 
vital  processes  and  tissues,  the  amount  supplied  is  first 
used  for  the  vital  processes,  and  the  tissues  suffer.  More- 
over, if  not  enough  is  supplied  for  the  vital  processes,  it  is 
taken  from  the  tissues,  and  they  are  weakened  to  that 
extent.  Lime,  for  instance,  is  needed  for  bone,  nerve,  and 
muscle.  It  is  also  needed  in  the  blood  and  digestive  fer- 
ments, and  will  be  taken  first  by  the  blood  and  ferments. 
The  result  of  an  insufficient  supply  would  be  soft  bones, 
twitching  nerves,  or  flabby  muscles.  Lime  is  needed  for 
infants  and  growing  children  in  much  greater  abundance 
than  for  those  who  have  attained  growth,  and  mothers 
should  know  what  foods  supply  an  abundance  of  lime. 

Chemical  Change  or  Action.  —  In  various  substances 
the  elements  are  held  together  more  or  less  loosely,  so  that 
if  two  substances  are  brought  together,  the  elements  tend 


COMPOSITION  OF   THE   HUMAN   BODY  15 

to  separate  and  unite  again  with  other  elements  to  form 
new  and  more  stable  substances.  This  is  called  chemical 
change  or  action,  and  is  constantly  going  on,  transforming 
inert  waste  substances  into  plants  and  animals,  and  break- 
ing down  living  matter  into  lifeless  matter.  Plants  take 
in  carbon  dioxide,  —  a  waste  substance  given  off  by  animals, 
-water,  and  mineral  matter,  and  from  them  construct 
starch  and  other  substances  found  in  plants.  Certain  bac- 
teria feed  on  living  matter,  as  tissues  in  the  human  body, 
and  decompose  it.  Yeast  plants  break  down  sugar  and 
change  it  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  Iron  has  a 
strong  attraction  for  the  oxygen  in  the  air.  In  the  pres- 
ence of  moisture,  the  iron  unites  with  the  oxygen,  forming 
a  new  substance  called  oxide  of  iron  or  iron  rust. 

Probably  the  most  familiar  example  of  chemical  change 
is  the  one  usually  cited  because  of  its  similarity  to  the 
chemical  change  which  takes  place  in  the  body  when  foods 
are  oxidized.  That  is,  the  burning  of  any  fuel  outside  the 
body,  as  wood. 

Wood  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and 
mineral  matter.  When  air  is  present,  and  the  wood  is 
brought  to  the  kindling  point,  the  carbon  in  the  wood  unites 
with  the  oxygen  in  the  air,  forming  carbon  dioxide  (CC^), 
and  the  hydrogen  and  the  oxygen  unite  to  form  water 
(H20).  The  mineral  matter  remains  in  the  form  of  ash. 
In  this  way,  from  wood  and  air  are  formed  two  new  sub- 
stances unlike  either  of  them,  carbon  dioxide  and  water. 
These  are  the  products  of  combustion,  and  they  are  formed 
whenever  a  substance  containing  carbon  is  burned.  When- 
ever chemical  change  takes  place,  energy  is  involved. 

Heat  is  a  form  of  energy.  Any  form  of  energy  can  be 
changed  into  another  form  without  loss.  Thus,  electric 


1 6  COMPOSITION  OF   THE   HUMAN  BODY 

energy  may  be  transformed  into  light,  power,  or  heat. 
The  energy  of  burning  coal  may  be  used  to  run  an  engine 
or  heat  a  train.  When  any  substance  is  burned,  energy  is 
released  as  heat.  Different  substances  yield  different 
amounts  of  energy,  —  a  pound  of  coal  will  yield  more  energy 
than  a  pound  of  wood ;  a  pound  of  fat  will  yield  more  energy 
than  a  pound  of  sugar.  The  unit  for  measuring  heat  is 
called  the  calorie.  It  is  the  amount  of  heat  that  would 
be  required  to  raise  i  pound  of  water  4°  F. ;  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  amount  of  energy  required  to  raise  i  ton  1.54 
feet. 

Oxidation.  —  Oxidation  is  the  name  given  to  one  of  the 
chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the  cells  of  the  body. 
The  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood  carry  oxygen  to  the  cells. 
The  plasma  of  the  blood  carries  albumin,  fat,  and  sugar 
to  the  cells.  This  oxygen  unites  with  the  cells  and  the  sub- 
stances brought  by  the  plasma,  and  slowly  burns  or  oxidizes 
them,  producing  as  much  energy  as  these  substances  would 
yield  if  burned  outside  the  body.  Some  of  this  energy 
manifests  itself  in  the  form  of  heat,  and  is  used  to  maintain 
the  normal  temperature  of  the  body  (98.6°  F.).  Some  of 
the  energy  enables  the  body  to  carry  on  its  vital  processes. 

Oxidation  is  necessary  for  the  life  and  growth  of  the  cell. 
It  is  the  process  by  which  the  old  cells  are  broken  down 
so  that  new  ones  may  be  rebuilt.  The  cells  are  built  from 
the  albumin  and  mineral  matter  brought  to  them  in  the 
plasma.  The  breaking  down  of  the  old  cells  and  the  build- 
ing of  the  new  is  called  metabolism,  and  it  includes  also 
the  production  of  energy  during  oxidation  of  the  organic 
material  brought  to  the  cells.  These  processes  are  insep- 
arable because  we  should  consider  the  fat  and  sugar  as 
fuel  needed  for  carrying  on  the  work  of  upbuilding  and 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE  HUMAN  BODY  17 

repairing  of  cells,  though  the  building  material  must  be 
protein. 

By  oxidation  of  foods,  energy  is  produced ;  but  by  this 
oxidation  or  chemical  change  of  food,  new  substances  are 
formed  called  end  products,  and  these  products  must  be 
eliminated,  as  the  body  has  no  further  use  for  them. 

By  oxidation  of  fats  and  sugar,  carbon  dioxide  and  water 
are  produced.  By  oxidation  of  albumin,  carbon  dioxide, 
water,  and  the  nitrogenous  waste,  urea,  are  produced. 
These  waste  products  are  eliminated  through  the  lungs, 
skin,  and  kidneys. 

The  food  as  it  is  taken  into  the  body  must  go  through  a 
series  of  changes  before  it  can  be  taken  into  the  blood 
and  carried  to  the  cells.  This  process  is  called  digestion, 
and  will  be  considered  in  another  chapter.  Metabolism 
includes  the  changes  which  take  place  in  the  cells,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  changes  which  take  place  in  the  diges- 
tive tract. 


CONLEY,  N.  &  D.  —  2 


CHAPTER  II 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FOODS.     OCCURRENCE  AND  USES 


A.   NITROGENOUS  FOODS. 
I.  TRUE  PROTEINS. 

Build    tissue    and    yield 
energy. 

All  coagulated  by  heat 
or  acid  or  ferment. 

Coagulation       tempera- 
tures. 

Heat  about  165°  F. 

Ferment  98.6°  F. 


Forms  of  Protein 
Albumin  in  egg. 
Soluble  in  cold  water. 

Fibrin  in  meat. 

Myosin  in  meat. 

Soluble  in  dilute  salt  solution. 

Casein  in  milk. 
Soluble  in  dilute  alkali. 

Gluten  in  wheat. 
Legumin  in  beans. 

II.  ALBUMINOIDS.  Forms  of  Albuminoids 

Do  not  build  tissue,  but    Elastin  in  cell  walls. 

yield  energy.  Ossein  in  bone. 

Softened  and  dissolved  by     Collagen  in  connective  tissue. 

hot  and  boiling  water. 
Form  gelatin  on  cooling. 
Hardened  by  heat  and 
evaporation. 

III.  EXTRACTIVES. 
Neither  build  tissue  nor 

yield  energy. 
Stimulate,  and  aid  in  the 
assimilation     of     pro- 
teins. 

IV.  NITROGENOUS  FATS. 

Lecithins,  peculiar  nitrogenous  fats  found  in  different  cells 
of  the  body,  as  brain,  nerves,  liver. 
18 


of 


Forms  of  Extractives 

Kreatin,  xanthin,  etc. 

Products    of    decomposition 
muscle  tissue. 

Found  in  meats  and  some  vege- 
tables. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   FOODS  19 

Nitrogenous  Foods.  —  The  proteins,  or  albumins,  as 
they  are  sometimes  called,  are  the  most  important  of  all 
foods  because  they  form  the  essential  part  of  the  proto- 
plasm of  every  cell  of  the  body.  The  same  might  be  said 
of  such  mineral  substances  as  phosphorus  and  iron,  but 
these  occur  in  combination  with  the  various  proteins,  as 
nucleoprotein,  chromoprotein,  etc.  All  life  originates  in 
a  single  cell;  all  tissues  and  organs  are  collections  of 
cells.  The  cell  then  constitutes  the  unit  of  all  animal 
and  vegetable  life.  The  cell  consists  of  a  tiny  mass  of 
protoplasm,  —  a  jellylike  substance,  more  or  less  granular, 
having  in  the  center  a  denser  mass  called  the  nucleus. 
Cells  differ  according  to  their  various  functions,  but  all 
.cells  are  composed  of  80  to  85  per  cent  water,  a  small  amount 
of  mineral  matter,  and  proteins. 

The  proteins  are  albumins,  globulins,  but  mostly  com- 
pound proteins  as  nucleoprotein,  chromoprotein,  and 
lecithoprotein. 

It  can  be  said,  then,  that  the  proteins  are  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  foods  because  they  form  the  essential  part  of 
the  tissues  in  the  body,  and  occur  in  the  blood,  lymph, 
and  all  secretions. 

Proteins  are  also  oxidized  in  the  body  and  furnish  energy 
for  work  and  activity. 

The  chemical  formula  of  proteins  is  only  approxi- 
mately known ;  very  little  is  known  of  their  molecular 
structure ;  there  is  no  universal  agreement  as  to  name,  and 
no  uniform  classification,  because  physiological  chemistry 
is  adding  to  our  knowledge  of  their  differences  from  day  to 
day.  No  field  of  study  furnishes  more  interesting  and 
valuable  research,  information,  and  data. 

Chittenden  has  defined  protein  as  a  substance  which 


20  CLASSIFICATION  OF   FOODS 

contains  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  sulphur, 
—  the  nitrogen  being  in  a  form  to  serve  the  physiological 
needs  of  the  body.  That  is,  in  such  form  that  it  will  build 
tissue. 

The  proteins  contain  about  16  per  cent  nitrogen,  though 
the  amount  varies  from  15!  per  cent  to  19  per  cent.  The 
compound  proteins  contain  phosphorus,  also.  Some  con- 
tain iron  and  other  elements.  For  the  purpose  of  study 
nitrogenous  foods  may  be  classified  as  True  Proteins,  Albu- 
minoids, and  Extractives  (see  page  18),  but  to  get  even  a 
faint  idea  of  the  uses  of  the  various  foods  as  nutrients  for 
the  body,  familiarity  with  the  general  classification  of  pro- 
teins is  necessary.  For  example,  wheat  flour  as  commonly 
purchased  is  made  from  the  part  of  the  wheat  that  contains 
the  protein  in  the  form  of  glutelin;  the  germ  and  outer 
coats,  removed  in  milling,  contain  different  proteins,  as 
nucleoprotein  and  others.  If,  even  in  a  grain  of  wheat, 
the  character  of  the  protein  varies  in  the  different  parts 
because  each  part  has  different  work  in  the  growth  and 
development  of  the  young  plant,  it  is  evident  that  man 
should  have  some  knowledge  of  the  different  proteins  to 
know  which  foods  contain  those  needed  for  the  growth  and 
development  of  his  various  tissues  and  organs. 

True  proteins,  as  classified  on  page  18,  or  simple,  de- 
rived and  compound  proteins  as  classified  on  page  34, 
contain  nitrogen  in  a  form  to  serve  the  physiological  needs 
of  the  body  for  tissue  building.  They  also  furnish  energy. 
No  one  of  these  proteins  will  build  all  kinds  of  tissue, 
however.  An  erroneous  idea  prevails  that  any  form  of 
protein  is  as  good  as  several  forms.  That  this  is  not  true 
is  seen  from  experiments  where  animals  have  been  fed  on 
one  kind  of  protein  and  the  deteriorating  effects  of  such 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   FOODS  21 

diet  noted.  It  is  also  seen  in  the  evil  effects  of  excessive 
consumption  of  meat. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  opinion  is  gaining  ground  that  it 
is  not  the  quantity  of  protein  consumed  that  is  harmful, 
but  the  kind  of  protein.  It  might  be  added  also,  that  it 
is  the  lack  of  certain  mineral  ingredients  in  some  proteins. 

Albuminoids  do  not  contain  nitrogen  in  the  form  to  serve 
the  physiological  needs  of  the  body  for  tissue  building,  but 
they  yield  energy.  For  this  reason  they  are  spoken  of  as 
protein  sparers,  because  if  other  foods  are  used  as  sources 
of  energy,  the  proteins  can  be  used  simply  for  tissue  building. 
Extractives  are  decomposition  products  of  muscle  tissue  or 
proteins,  and  neither  build  tissue  nor  yield  energy.  They 
furnish  flavor  to  meat,  act  as  stimulants  to  appetite,  and 
call  out  the  digestive  juices. 

The  commonest  proteins  in  food  are  albumin  as  found 
in  egg  and  blood,  casein  in  milk,  glutens  in  wheat,  le- 
gumin  in  peas  and  beans,  fibrin  and  myosin  in  meat. 
Under  the  action  of  certain  ferments  normally  present, 
they  assume  slightly  different  form  and  composition. 
Ferments  change  liquid  myosinogen,  fibrinogen,  and  case- 
inogen  to  the  coagulated  forms  myosin,  fibrin,  and  casein. 
Foods  containing  the  most  proteins  are  cheese,  legumes, 
meat,  fish,  egg,  milk,  and  cereals. 

The  true  proteins  are  all  coagulated  by  heat  or  acid 
or  ferment  and  rendered  less  easily  digestible.  The  higher 
the  temperature  at  which  they  are  coagulated,  the  harder 
they  are  to  digest.  Proteins  cannot  diffuse  through  animal 
membrane  and  are  changed  during  digestion  from  insoluble 
proteins  to  a  soluble  form, — peptone, — and  in  that  form  they 
enter  the  blood.  They  are  used  in  the  body  to  build  tissue 
and  yield  energy,  and  in  this  process  they  are  broken  down 


22  CLASSIFICATION   OF   FOODS 

into  simple  compounds,  their  ultimate  products  of  decompo- 
sition being  the  nitrogenous  wastes,  carbon  dioxide,  and 
water. 

The  proteins  are  being  constantly  decomposed  or  broken 
down  in  the  body  as  a  result  of  cell  activity.  If  these  de- 
composition products  are  not  immediately  removed  from 
the  cells,  they  act  as  poisons  cTr  toxins,  producing  fatigue 
or  pain  or  lowering  the  vitality.  These  products  are  nor- 
mally removed  through  the  kidneys  in  the  form  of  urea,  and 
it  will  be  readily  seen  that  if  more  protein  is  consumed  than 
is  needed  for  tissue  renewal,  it  either  accumulates  in  the 
tissues,  or  is  not  fully  oxidized  to  urea,  and  intermediate 
products  are  formed  that  may  be  harmful  to  the  body,  or 
may  impose  extra  work  on  the  excretory  organs. 

Too  much  importance  cannot  be  given  to  the  fact  that 
the  system  must  rid  itself  of  waste  products,  or  they  accumu- 
late and  lower  resistant  power  or  working  efficiency.  It  is 
because  the  decomposition  products  of  protein  metabolism 
are  so  harmful  if  not  neutralized,  or  if  not  fully  oxidized, 
that  so  much  is  written  concerning  excessive  consumption 
of  protein  foods. 

Albuminoids  occur  in  the  various  animal  tissues.  All 
forms  of  connective  tissue,  such  as  the  cell  walls  and  the 
substance  that  holds  cells  together,  are  albuminoids.  The 
common  forms  are:  elastin  in  cell  walls;  ossein  in  bone; 
collagen  in  tendons  and  ligaments.  The  albuminoids  are 
hardened  by  heating  and  drying,  but  are  softened  and  dis- 
solved by  heat  and  moisture,  and  when  cooled,  form  gela- 
tin. This  knowledge  of  the  action  of  heat  on  cell  walls 
and  connective  tissue  is  of  great  value  in  the  cooking  of 
meats  and  fish.  By  boiling  meat  in  water  the  cell  walls  and 
the  substance  holding  the  cells  together  are  dissolved,  the 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   FOODS  23 

protein  inside  the  cells  is  coagulated  and  toughened,  and 
the  result  is  a  stringy  mass  of  fibers.  This  condition  can 
be  avoided  by  cooking  the  meat  at  a  temperature  that  will 
soften,  but  not  dissolve,  the  connective  tissue.  This  con- 
nective tissue  is  so  delicate  in  most  fish  that  the  flesh  will 
fall  apart  if  the  fish  are  boiled. 

Extractives,  as  kreatin,  kreatinin,  xanthin,  are  found  in 
meat  juice  and  meat  extract,  also  in  some  vegetables,  as 
asparagin  in  potato.  They  are  soluble  in  hot  and  cold 
water  and  are  often  lost  in  cooking.  They  give  to  meat  its 
flavor.  Those  meats,  like  beef  and  mutton,  having  the 
greatest  amount  of  flavor  contain  more  extractives  than 
veal,  pork,  and  chicken. 

Extractives  are  present  in  greatest  quantity  in  muscles 
that  are  exercised  most ;  game  has  more  than  tame  fowl. 

Extractives  neither  build  tissue  nor  yield  energy,  but  act 
as  stimulants  to  digestion,  and  they  may  aid  in  the  digestion 
of  proteins. 

Lecithin  is  a  peculiar  nitrogenous  fat,  containing  phos- 
phorus, found  in  nerves,  brain,  and  bile.  Combined  with 
albumin  it  forms  lecithoprotein  and  is  found  in  the  lungs 
and  liver.  In  foods  it  is  found  principally  in  milk  and  eggs 
and  in  the  seeds  of  plants. 

B.  NON-NITROGENOUS  FOODS. 

I.   CARBOHYDRATES.  Forms  of  Carbohydrates 

Softened  by  heat  or  acid     i.   Starch.    As  in  potato,   rice, 
or  ferment.  corn,   and   all  other  vege- 

tables. 

Oxidized  in  the  body  and     2.  Sugar.     As  in  cane,  beet,  ma- 
furnish  energy.  pie,  milk,  and  fruit. 
May  be  transformed  into    3.   Cellulose.       Cell     walls     of 
fat  and  stored  as  fatty              plants, 
tissue.                                4.   Pectose.     Changed  to  pectin 


24  CLASSIFICATION   OF  FOODS 

by  the  ferment  pectase. 
Causes  fruit  juice  to  gelati- 
nize. 

II.   FATS.  Forms  of  Fat 

Oxidized  in  the  body  and          Fats  and  oils. 

furnish  energy. 

Stored  in  cell  walls,  and          As  butter,  lard,  olive  oil. 
freed  from  cell  wall  by 
heat. 

Separated  into  fatty  acid 
and  glycerin  by  steam 
or  alkalies. 

III.  VOLATILE  OILS.     In  orange  and  lemon  skins ;    also  in  other 

fruits,  flowers  and  vegetables. 

IV.  VEGETABLE  ACIDS.     Malic  in  apples,  oxalic  in   tomatoes, 

citric  in  lemons,  tartaric  in  grapes. 

Decomposition  products  of  starch  and  sugar.     They  are 
decomposed  in  the  body,  forming  alkaline  carbonates  and 
help  to  preserve  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood. 
V.   MINERAL  MATTER.  Forms 

In  tissues  and  fluids  of          Lime  in  milk;    iron  in  eggs, 
the  body.  green  vegetables,  and  leg- 

umes ;        phosphorus       in 
wheat,    eggs,    milk;     sul- 
phur  in   eggs;     soda   and 
potash  in  vegetables. 
Salt. 
VI.  WATER. 

Carbohydrates.  —  By  the  term  carbohydrates  is  meant 
the  large  class  of  vegetable  foods  commonly  referred  to  as 
starches  and  sugars.  They  are  composed  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  the  last  two  usually  in  the  propor- 
tion to  form  water.  They  are  transformed  in  the  body 
into  glucose,  and  then  oxidized,  being  sources  of  energy. 
Carbohydrates  may  be  converted  in  the  body  into  fats 
and  form  fatty  tissue.  Carbohydrates  are  classified  as: — 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   FOODS  25 

1.  Amyloses  (C6Hi005),  which  include  starch,  dextrin, 
cellulose,  gum,  glycogen,  and  pectin. 

2.  Sucroses  (C^H^On),  which  include  sucrose  or  cane 
sugar,  lactose  or  milk  sugar,  maltose  or  malt  sugar. 

3.  Glucoses  (C6Hi206),  which  include  dextrose  or  grape 
sugar,  levulose  or  fruit  sugar,  and  invert  sugar,  a  mixture 
of  the  two. 

4.  Vegetable  Acids,  decomposition  products  of   sugar; 
the  commonest  are,  --  citric  acid  in  lemons,  malic  acid  in 
apples,  tartaric  acid  in  grapes,  oxalic  acid  in  tomatoes. 

Amyloses.  —  Starch  is  the  nourishment,  or  reserve  food 
for  the  young  plant,  stored  in  the  roots  or  seeds  until  it 
is  needed.  It  is  found  in  all  vegetables  and  in  all  parts 
of  the  plant,  but  is  most  abundant  in  cereals,  legumes, 
roots,  and  tubers.  It  occurs  in  minute  cells  or  granules, 
which  consist  of  a  wall  of  cellulose,  inclosing  starch  and 
water.  The  granules,  or  cells,  of  various  plants  have  defi- 
nite markings,  shape,  and  structure,  so  that  the  potato 
starch  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  corn  or  other  starch 
granules.  The  cell  walls  vary  in  thickness,  and  that  ac- 
counts for  the  length  of  time  which  it  takes  to  soften  some 
vegetables  in  cooking.  The  plants  containing  most  starch 
are  rice,  wheat,  corn,  tapioca,  sago,  potato,  and  arrowroot. 

Starch  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  is  dissolved  or  ge- 
latinized in  boiling  water,  forming  a  paste.  Heat  at  320°  F. 
changes  dry  starch  to  dextrin ;  heat  and  moisture  cause 
starch  grains  to  swell  and  burst  the  cell  walls  which  inclose 
them,  and  this  frees  the  digestible  starch  from  the  indigestible 
coating  of  cellulose.  During  digestion  the  ferments  ptyalin 
and  amylopsin  change  starch  to  sugar.  Invertin  changes 
cane  sugar  to  glucose,  —  the  form  in  which  it  is  soluble  in 
the  body.  In  the  ripening  of  fruit,  heat  and  acid  change 


26  CLASSIFICATION  OF   FOODS 

starch  to  sugar.  In  grains  the  ferment  diastase  changes 
starch  to  a  form  of  sugar  called  maltose.  Commercially 
starch  is  changed  to  glucose  by  the  action  of  strong  acid, 
as  iiTthe  manufacture  of  glucose  products  from  corn,  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  or  sulphuric  acid. 

Dextrin  is  formed  when  starch  is  heated  to  320°  F.  It  is 
soluble  in  cold  water  and  is  more  easily  digested  than  starch. 
It  is  the  first  change  which  starch  undergoes  in  its  conver- 
sion into  glucose.  It  is  familiar  to  us  in  the  crust  of  bread, 
in  the  browned  flour  used  in  gravies,  and  in  the  prepared 
breakfast  foods  and  cereal  coffees. 

Cellulose  is  the  substance  which  forms  the  cell  walls  of 
plants.  It  has  the  same  chemical  composition  as  starch, 
but  is  insoluble  in  all  common  solvents.  It  surrounds  the 
starch  in  such  a  way  that  it  must  be  broken  down  to  set 
the  starch  free.  This  is  done  by  heat  and  moisture. 
Though  ferments  in  the  human  stomach  cannot  act  on  cel- 
lulose, it  plays  an  important  part  in  digestion;  and  to  it 
green  vegetables  and  fruits  owe  much  of  their  dietetic 
value. 

The  alimentary  canal  is  twenty-five  feet  long  and  food 
moves  down  it  rather  sluggishly.  If  this  movement  is 
delayed  or  retarded,  bacteria,  always  present  in  food, 
become  active  in  the  large  intestine  and  undesirable  fer- 
mentation takes  place.  Sometimes  the  undesirable  food 
remains  in  the  body  and  the  poisons  from  its  fermentation 
enter  the  blood,  and  affect  general  health  conditions. 
They  lower  vitality  or  general  tone  of  the  body,  and  deplete 
energy. 

Cellulose  stimulates  the  walls  of  the  intestines  so  that  the 
food  moves  down  it  rapidly  enough  to  prevent  the  accumu- 
lation of  waste.  For  this  reason,  foods  which  contain 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FOODS  27 

cellulose  should  be  added  to  the  diet,  preferably  green  vege- 
tables and  fruits,  because  they  also  contain  valuable  mineral 
salts  and  acids. 

Vegetable  acids  are  decomposition  products  of  starch  and 
sugar  and  are  formed  by  the  action  of  a  ferment.  They 
are  oxalic,  tartaric,  citric,  malic,  acetic.  Lactic  acid  is 
formed  during  the  souring  of  milk  by  the  action  of  lactic 
acid  bacteria  on  milk  sugar.  Vegetable  acids  are  present 
in  all  fruits  and  are  of  great  value  to  the  body  because  they 
are  decomposed  in  the  body,  forming  alkaline  carbonates,  and 
help  to  preserve  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood  and  tissues. 

Glycogen.  —  In  the  body  starch  and  sugar  are  trans- 
formed into  glucose.  This  glucose  is  carried  to  the  liver 
and  there  converted  into  animal  starch,  or  glycogen,  and 
stored  until  needed.  When  needed,  it  is  reconverted  into 
glucose  and  enters  the  blood  and  is  carried  to  the  cells  and 
oxidized.  Glycogen  is  the  form  in  which  digested  starch 
is  stored  in  the  body,  glucose  the  form  in  which  it  cir- 
culates. 

Food  Value  of  Starch.  —  Starch  is  easily  and  thoroughly 
digested  by  the  average  individual.  Its  coefficient  of 
digestibility  is  98  per  cent,  which  means  that  98  per  cent  of 
it  is  digested  and  only  2  per  cent  escapes  digestion.  When 
oxidized  outside  the  body,  one  pound  of  starch  yields  1860 
calories;  when  oxidized  inside  the  body  it  yields  1820 
calories  or  4  calories  per  gram. 

Starch  Test.  —  If  a  solution  of  iodine  is  added  to  a  food 
containing  starch,  it  will  turn  blue. 

Sucroses.  —  Sucrose,  or  cane  sugar,  is  found  in  the  juice 
of  the  sugar  cane,  beets,  and  maple  trees.  There  is  no 
chemical  difference  in  these  sugars,  but  maple  sugar  con- 
tains certain  ethereal  substances  which  give  it  its  peculiar 


28  CLASSIFICATION  OF  FOODS 

flavor.  Sugar  is  soluble  in  water,  melts  at  320°  F.,  turns 
to  barley  sugar  at  356°  F.,  and  is  caramelized  at  420°  F. 
Sucrose  is  converted  in  the  body  into  glucose  by  the  action 
of  ferments.  Outside  the  body  it  is  converted  into  glucose 
by  the  action  of  heat  and  acid. 

Food  Value  of  Sugar.  —  Sugar  has  the  same  food  value 
to  the  body  that  starch  has,  but  as  it  has  undergone  one 
step  in  digestion  it  takes  less  energy  to  convert  it  into  glu- 
cose. For  this  reason  it  is  of  use  to  persons  who  have  little 
or  no  power  to  digest  starch,  and  is  also  a  good  food  in  times 
of  great  exertion  or  labor,  when  extraordinary  demands 
are  made  on  the  body  for  an  immediate  supply  of  energy, 
such  as  in  times  of  war  when  soldiers  are  on  the  march. 
Because  it  can  be  assimilated  so  rapidly  there  is  danger 
that  those  who  are  fond  of  sugar  will  consume  excessive 
amounts  and  that  the  fats  and  proteins  will  not  be  fully 
oxidized.  If  sugar  is  taken  in  too  concentrated  a  form,  it 
irritates  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach,  causing  a 
great  outpouring  of  mucus,  which  interferes  with  the  secre- 
tion of  gastric  juice  and  gastric  digestion.  If  taken  in 
too  great  quantities,  it  may  cause  fermentation  in  the  stom- 
ach. Contrary  to  current  opinion,  which  seems  to  be  that 
no  warning  is  needed  because  of  excessive  consumption  of 
sugar,  observation  has  shown  that  girls  who  consume 
excessive  amounts  of  candy  and  foods  containing  much 
sugar  —  and  there  are  many  such  girls  —  have  no  appe- 
tite for  nutritious  foods  which  they  need,  and  are  subject 
to  indigestion,  and  its  train  of  ills.  Sugar  contains  no  min- 
eral matter. 

Lactose.  —  Lactose,  or  milk  sugar,  is  the  form  of  sugar 
which  occurs  in  milk.  It  can  be  separated  from  the  other 
ingredients  in  milk  whey,  and  is  sold  for  medicinal  use,  or 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   FOODS  29 

to  add  to  cow's  milk  for  infant  feeding  in  place  of  cane 
sugar.  In  fermentation  of  sucrose,  carbon  dioxide  and  al- 
cohol are  formed,  while  the  product  of  lactic  fermentation  is 
lactic  acid. 

Maltose.  —  Maltose,  or  malt  sugar,  does  not  occur  in 
nature,  but  is  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  ferment  diastase 
on  starch  in  grains.  During  germination,  diastase  changes 
the  starch  to  maltose ;  this  is  done  during  the  process  of 
liquor  making.  Maltose  is  formed  during  digestion  by  the 
action  of  ptyalin  and  amylopsin  on  starch. 

Glucoses.  - 

C12H22On  plus  H20  =  (C6H1206)  &  (C6H1206) 

Sucrose  plus  water  =  dextrose  and  levulose. 

Glucose  is  the  form  of  sugar  that  is  soluble  in  the  body 
and  the  form  in  which  it  circulates.  All  starch  and  sugar 
taken  into  the  body  must  be  converted  into  glucose  before 
it  can  be  assimilated.  Glucoses  are  colorless,  odorless 
substances  of  sweetish  taste  and  neutral  reaction.  They 
are  soluble  in  water  and  diffuse  through  animal  membrane. 
They  occur  in  three  forms,  dextrose,  levulose,  and  invert 
sugar,  a  combination  of  the  two.  Dextrose  occurs  in  na- 
ture in  grapes.  When  they  are  dried,  it  separates  out  into 
yellow  granules.  Levulose  occurs  in  fruits,  roots,  and 
seeds  of  vegetables. 

Commercial  Glucose.  —  Glucose  is  manufactured  from 
starch,  usually  corn  starch,  by  the  action  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  This  glucose  is  about  three  fifths  as  sweet  as  cane 
sugar  and  is  sold  as  a  thick,  colorless,  transparent  liquid 
under  the  name  of  corn  sirup.  It  is  the  basis  of  many 
sirups,  to  which  something  is  added  for  flavor  and  color. 
It  is  also  used  in  making  cake  Costings,  creams,  and  candy 
where  a  non-crystalline  sugar  is  desirable.  It  seems  to  be 


30  CLASSIFICATION  OF  FOODS 

harmless  to  the  human  system  if  properly  made,  despite 
the  fact  that  there  is  much  said  against  it.  Cane  sugar 
may  be  converted  into  glucose  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
amount  of  acid,  as  in  the  making  of  fondant.  It  is  con- 
verted into  glucose  and  loses  some  of  its  sweetening  power 
when  it  is  added  to  fruits  in  cooking.  For  this  reason 
some  people  prefer  to  add  the  sugar  after  the  fruit  is  cooked. 

Fats  and  Oils.  —  Fats  are  substances  composed  of  car- 
bon, hydrogen,  and  oxygen;  and  when  they  are  oxidized 
in  the  body,  they  yield  energy.  The  chemical  formula  for 
stearin,  one  of  the  fats,  is  (CnHssCOCOaCgHg.  This 
shows  that  fats  contain  so  little  oxygen  and  so  much  carbon 
that  more  oxygen  is  needed  for  their  oxidation  than  for 
either  protein  or  carbohydrate,  and  hence  one  pound  of 
fat  yields  two  and  one  fourth  times  as  much  heat  as  either 
of  the  other  organic  foods.  For  this  reason  fats  are  some- 
times referred  to  as  the  heat-producing  foods. 

In  addition  to  yielding  energy,  fats  occur  in  the  body  as 
fatty  tissue,  though  carbohydrates  and  proteins  are  thought 
to  be  the  sources  from  which  fatty  tissue  is  formed. 

Fats  occur  in  the  body,  under  the  skin,  in  the  muscles,  and 
around  certain  organs  to  protect  them  from  injury,  and 
they  serve  as  a  reserve  supply  of  fuel  when  needed  in  case 
of  sickness  or  when  food  cannot  be  taken.  They  save  the 
tissues  from  being  used  at  such  times,  because,  if  food  can- 
not be  taken,  the  demand  of  the  body  for  heat  and  energy 
to  carry  on  vital  processes  is  imperative  and  must  be  met 
by  fats  stored  in  the  body  or  by  the  tissues,  just  as  when 
wood  and  coal  are  not  attainable,  furniture  must  be  sacrificed 
to  furnish  fuel  to  keep  people  from  freezing. 

Fats  are  liquid  in  the  living  body  and  are  stored  in 
albuminous  cells  or  pockets.  These  cell  walls  must  be 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FOODS  31 

ruptured  by  heat  or  by  the  action  of  the  digestive  juices  to 
set  the  fat  free.  Fats  are  decomposed  by  steam,  by  boiling 
with  an  acid  or  an  alkali,  or  by  the  digestive  ferments, 
lipase  and  amylopsin,  into  fatty  acid  and  glycerin.  All 
fats  are  compounds  of  one  or  more  fatty  acids  and  glyc- 
erin. When  fats  are  decomposed  into  fatty  acid  and  glyc- 
erin and  either  sodar'or  potash  is  added,  the  fatty  acid 
unites  with  the  alkali  and  forms  soap. 

The  commonest  fats  are :  stearin,  composed  of  stearic 
acid  and  glycerin;  palmitin,  composed  of  palmitic  acid 
and  glycerin;  olein,  composed  of  oleic  acid  and  glycerin. 
Most  fats  are  mixtures  of  several  fats  and  glycerin ;  the 
predominating  one  gives  the  general  character  to  the  fat, 
as  olein  in  lard,  and  stearin  in  beef  fat. 

There  is  no  chemical  distinction  between  fats  and  oils. 
An  oil  is  fat  which  is  liquid  at  ordinary  temperature. 
Fat  is  found  in  all  animal  foods,  as  meat,  fish,  eggs,  milk, 
butter,  and  cheese.  It  occurs  in  some  vegetables,  as  olives, 
cottonseed,  cocoa,  oats,  and  an  inappreciable  amount  in 
roots  and  tubers,  green  vegetables,  and  fruits. 

Volatile  or  Essential  Oils.  —  A  substance  present  in 
fruits,  flowers,  and  some  vegetables,  which  gives  to  them 
their  characteristic  flavor  or  odor,  is  called  essential  or  vola- 
tile oil.  It  occurs  in  orange,  lemon,  and  grapefruit  rind,  also 
in  almonds,  vanilla  beans,  onions,  garlic,  coffee,  and  other 
foods.  It  volatilizes  in  cooking  and  is  frequently  lost. 
Foods  with  great  quantities  of  it  are  often  cooked  in  un- 
covered dishes  so  as  to  allow  it  to  escape,  or  the  water  in 
which  the  food  is  cooked  is  changed  several  times. 

Water.  --The  human  body  is  nearly  60  per  cent  water. 
It  enters  into  the  formation  of  every  tissue.  Even  the 
enamel  of  the  teeth,  the  hardest  substance  in  the  body, 


32  CLASSIFICATION  OF  FOODS 

contains  water.  All  fluids  of  the  body  are  chiefly  water. 
It  is  usually  taken  into  the  body  as  a  drink,  though  most 
foods  are  over  50  per  cent  water.  It  is  formed  in  the  body 
during  oxidation  of  hydrogen  compounds,  which  would 
mean  fats,  carbohydrates,  and  proteins.  About  four  pints 
of  water  are  excreted  daily  from  the  body  through  the 
kidneys,  skin,  lungs,  and  intestines,  so  it  will  be  readily  seen 
that  more  water  is  needed  by  the  body  than  the  aver- 
age person  consumes. 

Water  has  many  important  uses.  As  has  been  said,  every 
tissue  contains  water  and  cannot  exist  without  it.  Water 
is  a  solvent,  it  reduces  the  food  to  a  liquid  condition  so 
that  it  can  be  easily  swallowed,  digested,  and  absorbed. 
It  dilutes  the  digestive  juices  so  that  they  can  reach  every 
particle  of  food  and  act  on  it.  It  dilutes  the  blood  and 
lymph,  and  aids  in  carrying  nutrition  to  the  cells  and  in  the 
removal  of  waste  products  of  metabolism.  It  aids  in  the 
excretion  of  urea  and  excites  peristalsis.  It  distributes 
the  heat  over  the  body  by  promoting  circulation,  and 
through  perspiration.it  regulates  the  temperature  of  the 
body  by  carrying  away  surplus  heat.  It  moistens  all 
membranes  of  the  body. 

Water  is  not  absorbed  from  the  stomach,  but  enters  the 
intestines  and  aids  and  excites  peristalsis  there.  When 
water  is  not  taken  into  the  body  in  sufficient  quantity,  it 
leaves  the  tissues  to  supply  the  blood,  resulting  in  imper- 
fect circulation,  imperfect  removal  of  waste,  and  loss  of 
bodily  weight.  Warm  or  hot  water  has  several  important 
uses.  It  washes  away  mucus  that  sometimes  covers  the  tubes 
which  secrete  gastric  juice,  and  by  promoting  its  flow  aids 
and  stimulates  gastric  digestion.  It  is  used  medicinally 
also. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   FOODS  33 

Mineral  Matter.  -  -  The  tissues  and  fluids  of  the  body 
contain  97  per  cent  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitro- 
gen; and  the  remaining  3  per  cent  consists  of  various 
mineral  substances,  as  iron,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  potassium, 
sodium,  calcium,  magnesium,  chlorine,  and  fluorine.  These 
minerals  are  combined  with  the  organic  substances  forming 
the  various  tissues  and  fluids ;  and  when  these  are  oxidized, 
the  mineral  matter  remains  as  ash  or  inorganic  solids,  and 
is  eliminated  as  waste,  mainly  through  the  kidneys.  They 
usually  occur  in  foods,  as  acids  or  salts,  in  combination 
with  the  organic  substances.  They  are  most  abundant 
in  vegetable  foods,  and  also  occur  in  eggs,  milk,  and 
meat. 

They  are  absolutely  essential  for  all  vital  processes,  — 
as  digestion,  assimilation,  oxidation,  growth  of  cells,  repro- 
duction, and  all  processes  of  metabolism. 

Uses  of  Mineral  Matter.  —  Mineral  matter  occurs  in  all 
digestive  juices  and  enters  into  the  composition  of  all 
tissues.  Calcium  phosphate  is  found  in  the  bone,  and 
calcium  salts  are  necessary  for  coagulation  of  blood.  Iron 
is  found  in  the  haemoglobin  of  red  blood  corpuscles  and  gives 
them  their  power  to  carry  oxygen  to  the  cells  of  the  body. 
It  is  also  found  in  the  chromatin  substance  of  the  cells, 
which  is  necessary  for  reproduction  and  development. 
Phosphorus  is  found  in  the  nucleus  of  every  cell,  and  is 
essential  for  metabolism.  It  is  most  abundant  in  brain 
and  nerve  cells.  The  chlorides  are  necessary  for  the  pro- 
duction of  hydrochloric  acid  in  the  gastric  juice,  and 
sodium  chloride  (common  salt)  is  found  in  all  the  tissues 
of  the  body. 

Mineral  matter  regulates  the  chemical  reaction  of  the 
blood,  all  secretions,  and  excretions.  It  regulates  the 

CONLEY,  N.  &  D.  —  3 


34  CLASSIFICATION   OF   FOODS 

specific  gravity  of   the  blood,  and  aids  absorption  and 
excretion. 

In  protein  metabolism  acids  are  formed,  and  base-form- 
ing elements,  as  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  are 
necessary  to  neutralize  the  acids  and  maintain  the  normal 
alkalinity  of  the  blood  and  tissues.  These  elements  occur 
in  greatest  abundance  in  vegetables  and  fruits. 

GENERAL  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PROTEINS  (FOR  REFERENCE) 

1.  SIMPLE  PROTEINS. 

A.  Albumins.      Lact,    ov,    serum,    muscle     albumin.      Coagu- 

lated by  heat;  soluble  in  cold  water,  dilute  salt,  acid  or 

alkali  solution.  Drawn  out  of  meat  by  soaking  in  cold 
water. 

B.  Globulins.     Milk,  blood,   egg,   vegetable   globulins.     Fibrin, 

myosin,    zein,    edestin,    legumin.     Coagulated    by    heat. 
Insoluble  in  water.     Soluble  in  a  dilute  salt  solution. 

C.  Glutelins.     Glutens  in  wheat.     Insoluble. 

D.  Phosphoalbumin.     Found    in    the    nucleoalbumin   of   cells. 

Vitellin  of  egg  yolk,  casein  in  milk.     Coagulated  by  acid 
or  ferment.     Soluble  in  dilute  alkalies. 

2.  DERIVED  PROTEINS. 

Derived  from  simple  proteins  by  action  of  heat  or  acid  or 
ferment. 

A.  Albuminates.     Formed  by  action  of  acid  or  alkali  on  albumin, 

as  syntonin. 

B.  Coagulated  proteins.     Formed  by  the  action  of  heat  or  acid 

or  ferment  on  albumin. 

C.  Peptones.     Formed  by  ferment  action  during  digestion. 

3.  COMPOUND  PROTEINS. 

Simple  proteins  plus  some  other  molecule. 

A.  Nucleoprotein.       Found  in  nucleus  of  cells. 

Albumin  plus  nucleic  acid. 

B.  Glycoprotein.        Found  in  mucin  and  mucoid. 

Albumin  plus  a  carbohydrate. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   FOODS 


35 


C.  Chromoprotein. 

D.  Lecithoprotein. 


4- 


Found  in  haemoglobin. 
Albumin  plus  iron. 
Found  in  cells. 
Albumin  plus  lecithin. 
ALBUMINOIDS. 

Ossein  in  bone,  elastin  in  cell  walls,  collagen  in  connective 

tissue.     Insoluble  in  water  or  salt  solution. 
Dissolved  by  boiling.     Gelatinizes  when  cooled. 


CHAPTER  III 
DIGESTION 

Digestion  is  the  process  by  which  food  is  changed  from  an 
insoluble  to  a  soluble  substance  so  that  it  can  diffuse  through 
the  walls  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  and  reach  the 
blood  vessels  and  lymphatics.  This  is  accomplished  by 
mechanical  and  chemical  action.  Thorough  grinding  by  the 
teeth  is  necessary  to  reduce  it  to  pulp  so  that  it  can  be  easily 
swallowed  and  so  that  every  part  of  it  can  be  mixed  with 
the  saliva.  The  muscular  walls  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines also  produce  mechanical  action  or  movement,  called 
peristalsis,  which  brings  the  food  into  contact  with  the 
gastric  juice  and  hastens  it  along  the  intestine. 

The  chemical  action  is  brought  about  by  ferments. 

Ferments  are  a  class  of  substances  existing  in  the  animal 
and  vegetable  world  that  have  the  power  to  bring  about  a 
chemical  change  in  a  substance  while  remaining  unchanged 
themselves.  Each  ferment  acts  only  on  one  certain  sub- 
stance ;  some  act  best  in  an  acid  medium,  some  in  an  alka- 
line ;  some  ferments  are  so  strong  that  they  destroy  others 
present  or  render  them  inert.  Animal  ferments  are  killed 
at  a  temperature  about  167°  F.,  vegetable  ferments  at  a 
temperature  about  176°  F. 

The  most  important  ferments  concerned  with  digestion 
are  ptyalin  in  the  saliva ;  pepsin  and  rennin  in  the  gastric 
juice;  amylopsin,  trypsin,  and  steapsin  in  the  pancreatic 
juice ;  and  invertin  in  the  intestinal  juice. 

36 


DIGESTION  37 

There  are  also  several  well-known  coagulation  ferments, 
-  the  fibrin  ferment,  which  causes  coagulation  of  the  blood, 
the  milk  ferment  rennin,  pectase  which  coagulates  pectin 
in  plants,  and  others.  Oxidation  ferments  in  every  cell 
seem  to  be  responsible  for  the  vital  processes.  In  fact, 
Simon  says,  "  There  is  a  tendency  to  assume  that  all  vital 
phenomena  are  due  to  certain  ferments." 

Digestion  in  the  Mouth.  —  Food  first  enters  the  mouth 
and  is  thoroughly  ground  by  the  teeth  and  mixed  with  a 
colorless,  odorless,  liquid  of  alkaline  reaction  called  saliva. 
The  saliva  is  produced  and  secreted  by  three  pairs  of  glands 
called  salivary  glands,  which  are  located  in  front  of  the  ear, 
below  the  tongue,  and  in  the  cheeks,  and  which  pour  their 
secretion  into  the  mouth  when  it  is  needed. 

Saliva  consists  of  about  995  parts  water,  5  parts  of  solid, 
which  consists  of  mucin,  mineral  salts,  and  a  ferment  called 
ptyalin  which  changes  starch  to  sugar.  The  amount 
secreted  varies  greatly.  When  the  food  is  thoroughly  mas- 
ticated, more  saliva  is  called  out,  and  the  food  is  liquefied 
so  that  it  is  prepared  for  stomach  digestion.  Dry  foods 
call  out  more  saliva  than  moist  foods,  and  for  this  reason 
thin  and  soft  breakfast  foods  are  not  so  readily  digested 
as  the  dry  or  more  solid  ones  that  must  be  masticated  and 
mixed  with  the  saliva.  A  pleasant  frame  of  mind  and  free- 
dom from  excitement  will  result  in  an  abundant  secretion  of 
saliva  when  food  is  presented,  while  anxiety,  worry,  or 
anger  will  retard  it.  The  importance  of  thoroughly  mas- 
ticating the  food,  so  that  the  saliva  can  reach  all  parts  of  it 
and  have  a  chance  to  act  on  it,  cannot  be  overestimated. 
The  more  saliva  there  is  mixed  with  the  food,  the  greater 
will  be  the  quantity  of  gastric  juice  called  out  to  neu- 
tralize it. 


38  DIGESTION 

The  action  of  the  ptyalin  continues  for  about  an  hour 
after  the  food  reaches  the  stomach.  As  soon  as  the  acid 
gastric  juice  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  food,  the  ptyalin 
ceases  to  act.  The  result  of  mouth  digestion,  then,  is  that 
the  food  is  finely  ground,  mixed  with  the  watery  saliva  so 
that  it  may  be  easily  swallowed,  and  the  digestion  of  the 
carbohydrates  is  begun  by  the  action  of  the  ptyalin  on  the 
starch. 

Peristalsis.  —  The  food  passes  through  the  pharynx  and 
esophagus  and  enters  the  stomach,  where  its  presence 
causes  a  continuous  and  regular  movement  of  the  muscular 
walls.  This  movement,  called  the  peristaltic  movement  of 
the  stomach,  keeps  the  food  in  constant  and  regular  agita- 
tion so  that  it  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  digestive  juice. 
The  gastric  juice  is  secreted  by  the  glands  in  the  stomach, 
and  its  flow  is  promoted  by  the  steady  intake  of  food  and 
by  the  presence  of  the  alkaline  saliva  which  it  neutralizes. 
The  gastric  juice  is  a  colorless  fluid  of  acid  reaction,  con- 
taining hydrochloric  acid  and  two  ferments,  rennin  and 
pepsin. 

The  ferment  rennin  coagulates  milk;  the  pepsin,  when 
mixed  with  hydrochloric  acid,  softens  and  dissolves  the 
proteins,  changing  them  to  proteoses  and  peptones,  —  forms 
of  protein  that  can  diffuse  through  the  walls  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines  and  reach  the  blood.  Pepsin  dissolves  the 
albuminous  pockets  in  which  fat  is  stored  and  sets  it  free. 
It  acts  only  in  the  presence  of  an  acid,  and  so  hydrochloric 
acid  is  necessary  for  its  complete  action.  If  the  acid  is 
deficient,  stomach  digestion  is  retarded.  Hydrochloric 
acid  also  destroys  such  germs  of  fermentation  as  may  enter 
the  stomach  in  food. 

The  result  of  stomach  digestion  is  the  reduction  of  the 


DIGESTION  39 

food  to  a  liquid  form,  the  coagulation  of  milk  by  rennin, 
the  beginning  of  protein  digestion  by  the  action  of  pepsin 
which  reduces  the  protein  to  the  proteoses  and  peptones, 
and  the  prevention  of  fermentation  by  the  action  of  the 
hydrochloric  acid. 

Intestinal  Digestion.  —  The  main  work  of  digestion  is 
carried  on  in  the  small  intestine.  A  slow  peristaltic  move- 
ment produced  by  the  contraction  and  relaxation  of  the 
muscle  fibers  of  the  intestine  moves  the  food  downward. 
Three  different  alkaline  digestive  juices  are  found  in  the 
small  intestine,  —  bile  secreted  by  the  "liver,  pancreatic 
juice  secreted  by  the  pancreas,  and  intestinal  juice 
secreted  by  the  intestines. 

The  pancreatic  juice  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  all 
the  digestive  juices  and  carries  on  the  main  work  of  diges- 
tion. It  is  secreted  by  the  pancreas,  enters  the  intestine 
about  one  inch  from  the  pyloric  or  stomach  entrance,  as 
does  also  the  bile.  The  food  is  mixed  with  the  pancreatic 
juice  and  bile  during  the  entire  intestinal  digestion.  The 
pancreatic  juice  contains  three  ferments:  steapsin,  which 
splits  the  fats  into  fatty  acid  and  glycerin  so  that  they  are 
ready  for  absorption ;  amylopsin,  or  pancreatic  ptyalin, 
which  converts  starch  to  maltose ;  trypsin,  which  acts  on 
the  proteins,  breaking  them  into  proteoses  and  peptones, 
and  possibly  still  further.  The  bile  and  intestinal  juices 
aid  and  strengthen  the  power  of  the  pancreatic  juice.  The 
intestinal  juice  contains  several  ferments,  —  the  most  im- 
portant being  the  invertins,  which  change  the  sucroses  to 
glucoses,  so  that  they  can  be  absorbed  and  reach  the  blood. 
The  result  of  intestinal  digestion  is  that  all  food  which  the 
individual  is  able  to  digest  is  dissolved  and  reduced  to  a 
form  in  which  it  can  diffuse  through  the  walls  of  the  intes- 


40  DIGESTION 

tines  and  be  taken  up  by  the  blood.  Proteins  have  been 
changed  to  peptones,  and  probably  by  the  time  they  reach 
the  blood  to  serum  albumin  and  globulin,  carbohydrates 
have  been  converted  into  glucoses,  fats  have  been  saponified 
and  emulsified. 

Work  of  the  Large  Intestine.  —  The  indigestible  or  un- 
digested food  remaining  in  the  small  intestine  passes  on 
into  the  large  intestine,  where  the  liquid  part  of  it  is  absorbed. 
After  traversing  the  large  intestine  it  is  expelled  from  the 
body  as  waste.  If  it  remains  too  long  in  the  intestine,  fer- 
mentation sets  in  and  the  gases  formed  during  the  fermenta- 
tion are  absorbed  into  the  blood  and  are  harmful  to  the  body. 

Absorption.  —  The  digested  food  diffuses  into  the  epithe- 
lial cells  lining  the  small  intestine,  and  there  in  some  manner 
yet  unknown  is  made  ready  to  enter  the  blood.  The  work 
is  probably  done  by  special  ferments.  Fat  is  probably 
reconstructed  into  neutral  fat,  but  at  any  rate  it  is  taken 
up  by  the  lacteals,  carried  to  the  thoracic  duct,  and  poured 
into  the  blood,  which  carries  it  to  the  cells  where  it  is  oxi- 
dized to  carbon  dioxide  and  water. 

Glucose  is  taken  by  the  portal  vein  to  the  liver,  where  it 
is  converted  into  glycogen  and  stored  until  needed.  When 
needed,  it  is  again  converted  into  glucose,  the  form  in  which 
it  can  circulate,  and  it  enters  the  blood  in  a  steady  stream. 
It  is  also  carried  to  the  cells  and  completely  oxidized,  form- 
ing carbon  dioxide  and  water. 

The  peptones,  changed  to  body  albumin,  are  taken  by 
the  blood  to  the  cells.  The  plasma  of  the  blood  contains 
albumin,  mineral  matter,  and  water,  and  it  diffuses  through 
the  capillaries  and  bathes  the  cells.  Each  cell  takes  what  it 
needs  for  building  material.  Oxygen  is  brought  to  the  cells 
by  the  red  corpuscles,  and  the  albumin  of  the  cells  is  broken 


DIGESTION  41 

down  by  oxidation,  and  new  cells  are  built  out  of  the  ma- 
terial brought  by  the  plasma. 

The  building  up  and  breaking  down  of  the  cells  is  called 
metabolism.  The  final  decomposition  products  of  cell 
metabolism  are  carbon  dioxide,  water,  and  urea.  The 
carbon  dioxide  is  carried  back  to  the  lungs.  The  other  waste 
products  are  removed  through  the  lymph.  The  organs  of 
elimination  are  the  skin,  kidneys,  lungs,  and  large  intestine. 

Alkalinity  of  the  Blood.  —  Certain  mineral  substances 
are  present  in  all  the  tissues  and  fluids  of  the  body,  and 
in  nearly  all  foods.  They  are  essential  for  the  life  and 
growth  of  the  tissues  and  for  all  the  vital  processes  of  the 
body.  Several  of  these  elements  are  combined  with  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen  to  form  the  solid  part  of 
the  tissues  of  the  body,  as  sulphur  in  all  proteins ;  phos- 
phorus in  phosphoalbumin,  and  lecithoprotein ;  iron  in 
chromoprotein.  The  tissues  could  not  exist  without  them. 
The  blood  contains  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  magne- 
sium, in  the  form  of  carbonates,  phosphates,  and  chlorides. 

Most  foods  contain  these  elements  in  varying  amounts ; 
and  it  will  be  remembered  that  all  foods  are  decomposed  in 
the  body  into  simpler  compounds,  and  that  during  metab- 
olism the  cells  are  oxidized  and  that  various  end  products 
are  formed. 

These  decomposition  products  are  either  acid  or  alkaline 
in  reaction,  and  so  we  may  call  certain  foods  acid- forming,  or 
base-forming,  according  to  the  predominance  of  certain 
elements  in  them.  Foods  having  a  predominance  of  chlo- 
rine, sulphur,  or  phosphorus  are  acid- forming  foods ;  those 
having  a  predominance  of  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  and 
magnesium  are  base-forming.  In  general  it  may  be  said 
that  meats  of  all  kinds,  eggs,  and  cereals  belong  to  the  first 


42  DIGESTION 

class ;    and  fruits,  green  vegetables,  legumes,  and  milk,  to 
the  second  class. 

All  these  elements  must  be  supplied  to  the  body  because 
they  are  all  essential  to  life,  growth,  and  health  of  the  body ; 
but  the  base-forming  elements  should  be  supplied  in  greater 
abundance,  because  the  blood  and  tissues  are  slightly  alka- 
line in  reaction  and  the  acidity  of  the  urine  must  be  con- 
trolled. 

One  of  the  oxidation  products,  carbon  dioxide,  is  re- 
moved from  the  cells  by  the  blood  plasma.  The  soda  and 
potash  in  the  blood  dissolve  the  carbon  dioxide  so  that  it 
is  carried  to  the  lungs  and  removed  from  the  body.  If  the 
alkalies,  soda  and  potash,  were  not  present  in  sufficient 
amounts  to  neutralize  the  acids,  the  carbon  dioxide  could 
not  be  dissolved,  and  it  would  remain  in  the  tissues  and 
cause  tissue  suffocation.  If  not  enough  base-forming  ele- 
ments are  supplied  in  the  foods  the  alkalies  are  withdrawn 
from  the  tissues,  secretions,  and  excretions,  and  the  nitrog- 
enous end  products  are  not  broken  down  to  urea,  and 
tissue  poisoning  results. 

During  the  oxidation  of  cells,  tissues,  and  nitrogenous 
foods  containing  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  chlorine,  acids 
are  formed,  and  base-forming  substances  must  be  present 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  neutralize  them. 

Green  vegetables  and  fruits  contain  the  base-forming  ele- 
ments in  abundance.  In  green  vegetables  they  are  present 
in  the  form  of  salts ;  in  fruits,  in  the  form  of  vegetable  acids. 
A  vegetable  acid  is  an  organic  acid  usually  combined  with 
potash  or  calcium  in  the  form  of  potassium  citrate,  potas- 
sium tartrate,  calcium  citrate;  and  during  oxidation  they 
are  converted  into  alkaline  carbonates,  as  carbonate  of 
potassium,  and  so  help  to  render  the  blood  alkaline. 


CHAPTER  IV 

NUTRITIVE  AND   FUEL  VALUE    OF  FOODS. 
DIGESTIBILITY 

Nutritive  and  Fuel  Value  of  Foods.  —  If  the  uses  of 
food  to  the  body  are  to  build  tissue  and  yield  energy, 
the  all-important  question  is,  how  much  of  each  food  is 
needed  to  supply  these  demands  and  in  what  propor- 
tion can  they  best  serve  the  physiological  needs  of  the 
body? 

The  value  of  any  food  to  the  body  depends  on  three 

things,  —  the   amount  of  nitrogen  which  it   contains  in 

the  form  of  protein,  the  amount  of  heat  which  it  will  yield 

on  combustion,  and  its  ease  and  completeness  of  digestion, 

-  in  other  words,  its  digestibility. 

Amount  of  Protein  Needed.  —  To  be  able  to  build  tissue 
a  food  must  contain  nitrogen  in  a  form  available  for  use 
in  the  body.  The  proteins  alone  contain  nitrogen  in  this 
form,  and  hence  they  are  of  first  importance  in  food  value, 
because  they  are  the  only  foods  available  for  tissue  build- 
ing. 

The  first  question  to  determine,  then,  is,  how  much  protein 
must  be  eaten  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  body  for  building 
and  repair  of  tissues.  As  practically  all  the  protein  di- 
gested is  oxidized,  either  before  it  reaches  the  cells  or  in  cell 
metabolism,  and  as  its  nitrogenous  waste  product  leaves 

43 


44    NUTRITIVE  AND  FUEL  VALUE  OF  FOODS 

the  body  in  the  form  of  urea,  the  daily  loss  of  nitrogen  can 
be  readily  calculated,  and  this  loss  would  show  just  how 
much  protein  is  oxidized  daily  in  the  body,  and  how 
much  would  be  needed  to  replace  it.  The  daily  intake  of 
nitrogen,  in  the  form  of  protein,  should  at  least  equal  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  excreted  in  the  urea.  This  is  called 
maintaining  nitrogenous  equilibrium. 

Probably  no  more  extensive  and  valuable  studies  have 
been  made  in  human  nutrition  than  those  made  in  protein 
requirements.  The  conclusions  drawn  by  the  American 
experimenters  will  be  given  in  this  chapter ;  but  it  may  be 
said  here  that  the  question  as  to  how  much  protein  is 
required  by  the  average  person  is  not  so  easily  settled  as  is 
that  of  energy- yielding  foods. 

Experiments  show  that  if  the  amount  of  nitrogen  taken 
in,  in  the  form  of  protein,  is  below  a  given  amount,  more 
nitrogen  is  excreted  than  is  taken  in  the  food.  This  would 
mean  that  the  tissues  are  being  used  up  and  that  there  is 
a  loss  of  bodily  weight.  If  the  normal  bodily  weight 
remains  the  same,  and  the  amount  of  nitrogen  taken  in 
equals  the  amount  excreted,  nitrogenous  equilibrium  is 
maintained,  and  that  should  be  the  amount  of  protein 
needed  by  that  individual.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  lost 
is  a  fairly  constant  quantity,  and  does  not  appreciably 
increase  with  muscular  exercise  or  work;  and  so  when  it 
is  once  determined  for  an  individual,  the  protein  require- 
ments can  be  determined. 

Atwater's  experiments  and  calculations  show  that  a  man 
engaged  in  moderately  active  muscular  work  excretes  18 
grams  of  nitrogen  daily.  A  protein  food  is  about  16  per 
cent  nitrogen,  which  would  mean  that  to  supply  this  man 
with  the  amount  of  nitrogen  needed  to  maintain  nitrog- 


NUTRITIVE  AND  FUEL  VALUE  OF  FOODS    45 

enous  equilibrium,  he  would  have  to  consume  about  112 
grams  of  digestible  protein  (16  per  cent  of  112  grams  pro- 
tein =  18  grams  nitrogen)  or  about  4  ounces  protein  (28.4 
grams  =  i  ounce.)  for  growth  and  repair  of  tissue.  As  a 
gram  of  protein  yields  about  4  calories,  112  grams  would 
equal  448  calories  of  protein  to  be  consumed  daily.  (For 
ease  in  calculating  450  calories  are  used.) 

Chittenden,  who  has  made  some  valuable  studies  in 
nutrition  and  conducted  many  experiments,  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  that  the  average  person  consumes  too  much 
protein,  and  that  60  grams,  or  240  calories,  daily  will  supply 
the  needs  of  the  average  worker.  Langworthy  and  Sher- 
man agree  that  100  grams  are  needed  by  the  person  engaged 
in  moderately  active  muscular  work.  Atwater's  conclu- 
sions, drawn  after  years  of  exhaustive  dietary  studies  and 
practical  investigations,  do  not  differ  greatly  from  Lang- 
worthy's  and  Sherman's,  and  it  seems  best  to  abide  by  these 
decisions  until  more  conclusive  evidence  is  given  that 
growing  or  working  men  can  maintain  health,  strength,  and 
resistant  power  on  a  lower  intake  of  protein. 

Fuel  Value  of  Foods.  --The  body  needs  a  certain  amount 
of  food  daily  to  supply  it  with  the  energy  needed  to  main- 
tain normal  bodily  temperature  and  for  work  and  muscular 
activity,  since  all  the  energy  used  in  the  body,  or  by  the 
body,  comes  from  the  food  eaten.  Even  when  a  person  is 
in  a  warm  room,  the  body  receives  no  heat  from  outside 
sources,  but  not  so  much  heat  is  lost  to  the  surrounding 
air.  Clothing  does  not  keep  the  body  warm,  but  prevents 
loss  of  heat ;  the  greater  the  surface  of  skin,  or  body  exposed 
to  the  air,  the  greater  will  be  the  loss  of  heat.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  remember  this  when  considering  the  question  of  dress 
for  summer  and  winter,  —  that  is,  that  all  bodily  heat  comes 


46         NUTRITIVE  AND   FUEL  VALUE  OF  FOODS 

from  the  food  eaten  and  digested,  and  that  if  little  clothing 
is  worn  in  cold  weather,  the  body  must  produce  enough 
heat  to  make  good  the  loss.  If  not  enough  food  is  taken  to 
produce  the  energy  needed  to  maintain  normal  bodily  tem- 
perature (98.6°  F.),  and  for  vital  processes,  the  tissues 
will  be  oxidized  for  that  purpose. 

All  organic  foods,  namely,  proteins,  fats,  and  carbohy- 
drates, yield  energy  when  oxidized,  but  in  varying  amounts 
and  hence  have  different  food  values.  Experiments  have 
been  made  to  show  what  percentages  of  the  various  foods 
are  digested  and  how  much  escapes  digestion.  The  figures 
showing  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  of  the  various  foods 
will  be  given  later.  Experiments  have  also  been  made 
which  show  how  much  energy  the  foods  will  yield  when 
oxidized  in  the  body. 

Excepting  the  amount  of  food  which  escapes  digestion,  it 
is  found  that  the  various  foods  will  yield  the  same  amount 
of  heat  when  oxidized  inside  the  body  as  they  do  when 
oxidized  outside  the  body.  Experiments  with  the  bomb 
calorimeter  in  which  foods  are  burned,  and  the  heat  evolved 
is  measured,  have  given  a  way  to  measure  the  fuel  value  of 
the  various  foods.  The  amount  of  heat  given  off  during 
oxidation  is  measured,  and  this  shows  the  potential  energy 
of  the  food.  Account  may  then  be  taken  of  the  difference 
between  the  amount  lost  during  digestion  and  the  total 
fuel  value  of  the  food,  and  by  this  method  the  fuel  value  of 
all  foods  can  be  ascertained. 

The  unit  for  measuring  heat  is  the  calorie,  the  amount 
of  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound  of  water  4°  F.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  fuel  value  of  one  pound  of  protein  or 
carbohydrate  is  1820  calories,  and  one  pound  of  fat  4040 
calories,  when  oxidized  in  the  body. 


NUTRITIVE   AND   FUEL  VALUE   OF   FOODS         47 

ENERGY  ACTUALLY  AVAILABLE  TO  THE  BODY 


i  GRAM 

i  OUNCE 

i  POUND 

Protein      

4  Cai: 

114  Cal. 

1820  Cal. 

Carbohydrate     

4  Cal. 

114  Cal. 

1820  Cal. 

Fat      

Q  Cal. 

2^3  Cal. 

4.040  Cal. 

When  oxidized  in  the  calorimeter  one  pound  of  pr^tjn  or;  • 
carbohydrate  yields  1860  Cal.  and  one  pound  of.fat^yiqMt* 
4220  Cal.  The  difference  is  due  to  losses  in  digestion.  ••I 

Proteins  as  Fuel.  —  It  will  be  seen  from  these;  figures 
that  the  proteins,  in  addition  to  repairing  rqJ^Tcular  waste^  v 
may  also  be  oxidized  for  energy.  As  proteins  are  needecfv 
for  the  first  purpose,  and  are  the  only  foods  that  can  build 
tissue,  the  fats  and  carbohydrates  are  termed  protein 
sparers  and  should  be  supplied  in  the  right  proportion  and 
quantity,  so  that  the  proteins  will  not  be  oxidized  as  fuel. 
Proteins  are  the  most  expensive  foods,  and  they  form  high- 
priced  fuel;  fats  and  carbohydrates  are  abundant  in  the 
cheaper  foods.  Then,  too,  fats  and  carbohydrates  are  com- 
pletely oxidized  in  the  body,  leaving  no  waste  substance, 
while  the  proteins  leave  the  nitrogenous  waste,  urea, 
entailing  extra  work  on  the  excretory  organs  to  rid  the  sys- 
tem of  it.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  of  first  impor- 
tance that  the  fats  and  carbohydrates  should  be  furnished 
in  the  right  proportion  to  supply  the  potential  energy 
needed  and  leave  to  the  proteins  the  work  of  tissue  build- 
ing. 

Amount  of  Energy  Needed.  —  Atwater's  and  other  ex- 
periments with  the  respiration  calorimeter  have  given 
valuable  data  as  to  the  amount  of  food  needed  by  different 


48         NUTRITIVE  AND   FUEL  VALUE  OF  FOODS 


persons  to  supply  bodily  needs.  Unlike  the  amount  of 
protein  needed,  which  is  a  fairly  constant  quantity  in  any 
individual,  the  amount  of  energy  needed  is  a  variable  quan- 
tity and  increases  with  work  and  muscular  activity.  The 
following  are  the  standards  accepted  by  well-known  Amer- 
ican authorities  as  to  the  protein,  energy,  total  food  re- 
quirements, and  nutritive  ratio.  They  are  planned  for  a 
man  engaged  in  moderately  active  muscular  work  or,  as 
Chittenden  expresses  it,  a  man  weighing  154  pounds. 


—  —  r-    — 

NAME 

PROTEIN  IN 
GRAMS 

PROTEIN  IN 
CALORIES 

FAT  AND 
CARBOHYDRATE 
IN  CALORIES 

TOTAL  IN 
CALORIES 

RATIO 

• 
Atwater  . 

112 

450  (nearly) 

2950 

3400 

i:6i 

Langworthy 

100 

400 

3100 

3500 

i:7l 

Sherman 

TOO 

400 

2600 

3000 

i:6i 

Chittenden  i 

60 

240 

2560 

2800 

i  :  10 

Atwater's  calculations  as  to  the  amount  of  nitrogen  and 
also  as  to  number  of  heat  units  needed  by  various  indi- 
viduals were  arrived  at  after  a  series  of  dietary  studies 
showing  the  amount  of  food  actually  consumed  by  normal 
people  in  various  occupations,  and  of  different  nationali- 
ties, and  different  dietary  standards ;  also  after  a  series  of 
experiments  with  the  respiration  calorimeter  (described  fully 
in  Farmer's  Bulletin,  No.  142,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture) where  an  account  was  taken  of  the  heat  given  off 
from  the  body,  and  of  work  expressed  in  terms  of  heat,  and  of 
loss  through  excreta.  By  these  methods  the  actual  income 
and  expenditure  of  the  body  can  be  estimated  or  measured 
and  the  needs  known.  The  needs  were  found  to  vary 
with  the  work,  activity,  age,  and  sex,  —  other  factors  also 
affecting  the  requirements. 


1/J—  INGOING  AIR .      itSI  * 

jYrT°"TcriNG  fiR~^ill^  r 


PLAN  OF  RESPIRATION  CALORIMETER  LABORATORY.     SEE  FRONTISPIECE.    FROM 
YEARBOOK,  1904,  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


NUTRITIVE   AND   FUEL  VALUE  OF  FOODS         49 

He  estimates  that  a  man  at  absolute  rest  in  bed  would 
need  2000  calories  daily  to  supply  the  imperative  needs  of 
the  body,  —  namely,  to  carry  on  the  vital  processes  of 
respiration,  digestion,  circulation,  etc.,  and  to  maintain 
normal  bodily  temperature.  It  may  be  said,  then,  that 
every  man,  no  matter  what  his  physical  condition  or 
activity  may  be,  needs  2000  calories  daily.  Any  exer- 
tion, even  to  sitting  up  in  bed,  requires  more  energy  and 
hence  calls  for  more  calories  of  food.  From  this  it  will  be 
seen  that  a  certain  amount  of  food  must  be  consumed  when 
no  work  is  performed  and  no  apparent  energy  expended. 
If  not  enough  food  is  taken  to  supply  these  demands,  as  in 
the  case  of  sickness,  the  tissues  are  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  following  table  will  show  how  the  needs  of  various 
individuals  may  be  calculated.  By  counting  the  number 
of  hours  spent  in  various  ways  during  the  twenty-four  hours 
of  the  day,  the  energy  needed  may  be  computed. 

HOURLY  OUTGO  OF  ENERGY  FROM  THE  HUMAN  BODY  AS  DETERMINED 
IN  THE  RESPIRATION  CALORIMETER  BY  THE  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT 
OF  AGRICULTURE 


AVERAGE  WEIGHT  (154  LB.) 

CALORIES 

Man  at  Rest  (asleep)  

6c 

Sitting  Up  (awake)      

IOO 

Light  Exercise  ...... 

I7O 

Moderate  Exercise 

IOO 

Severe  Exercise       

4.  CO 

Very  Severe  Exercise  

600 

By  this  method  Atwater  estimated  that  a  man  engaged 
in  moderately  active  muscular  work  needs  about  3400  cal- 
ories of  heat  daily.  As  this  man  would  need  112  grams  of 

CONLEY,  N.  &  D.  —  4 


50         NUTRITIVE  AND   FUEL  VALUE  OF  FOODS 

protein  daily,  which  is  equal  to  448  calories,  he  would  need 
foods  containing  fats  and  carbohydrates  in  quantity  to 
yield  2952  calories,  or  in  proportion  of  i :  6j. 

Food  requirements  differ  not  only  with  the  amount  of 
activity  manifested  by  the  individual  in  different  occupa- 
tions during  the  day,  but  they  also  vary  according  to  age, 
sex,  and  kind  of  work  performed  by  different  individuals. 
The  requirements  of  a  man  engaged  in  moderately  active 
muscular  work  are  taken  as  a  basis  for  the  requirements  of 
others. 

FACTORS    USED    IN    CALCULATING    MEALS  CONSUMED 
IN  DIETARY  STUDIES 

Man  at  moderately  active  muscular  work  (Atwater). 

Daily  requirement  112  grams  (450  Cal.)  protein,  3400  total 
calories. 

A  man  at  hard  muscular  work  requires  1.2  the  food  of  a  man  at 
moderately  active  muscular  work. 

A  man  with  light  muscular  work  and  a  boy  15  to  16  years  old 
each  requires  0.9  the  food  of  a  man  at  moderately  active  muscular 
work. 

A  man  at  sedentary  occupation,  a  woman  at  moderately  active 
work,  a  boy  13-14,  and  a  girl  15-16  years  old  each  requires  0.8  the 
food  of  a  man  at  moderately  active  muscular  work. 

A  woman  at  light  work,  a  boy  12,  and  a  girl  13-14  years  old 
each  requires  0.7  the  food  of  a  man  at  moderately  active  muscular 
work. 

A  boy  10-11  and  a  girl  11-12  years  old  each  requires  0.6  the  food  of 
a  man  at  moderately  active  muscular  work. 

A  child  6-9  years  old  requires  0.5  the  food  of  a  man  at  moderately 
active  muscular  work. 

A  child  2-5  years  old  requires  0.4  the  food  of  a  man  at  moderately 
active  muscular  work. 

A  child  under  2  years  requires  0.3  the  food  of  a  man  at  moderately 
active  muscular  work. 


NUTRITIVE  AND   FUEL  VALUE  OF   FOODS         51 

Nutritive  Ratio  of  Foods.  —  In  the  dietary  standards 
quoted,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  proteins  bear  a  certain 
relation  to  the  fats  and  carbohydrates,  that  each  man  has 
selected  according  to  his  judgment  or  experiments  the 
proper  ratio  in  which  tissue-building  and  energy- yielding 
foods  should  be  taken  so  as  to  secure  the  best  diet,  that  is, 
the  diet  which  will  produce  the  greatest  efficiency  with  the 
least  nitrogenous  waste.  Atwater's  ratio  is  i :  6^,  Chit- 
tenden's  is  i :  10.  This  relation  of  the  proteins  to  the  car- 
bohydrates and  fats  is  called  the  nutritive  ratio  or  the 
nutrient  ratio  of  foods,  and  is  of  value  in  determining  the 
place  which  any  food  or  any  class  of  foods  can  take  in  the 
diet,  or  whether  a  meal  or  ration,  when  planned,  is  properly 
balanced. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  any  food  may  be  found  in  two 
ways.  It  may  be  found  by  taking  the  chemical  composi- 
tion of  the  food  as  given  in  the  Atwater  tables  and  express- 
ing the  ratio  of  the  protein  to  the  carbohydrate  plus 
the  fat  multiplied  by  2  J,  or  the  fat  in  terms  of  carbohydrate. 
The  fat  must  be  multiplied  by  i\  to  express  it  in  terms  of 
carbohydrate,  because  when  oxidized  in  the  body  a  pound 
of  fat  will  yield  2j  times  as  many  calories  as  a  pound  of 
carbohydrate  will  yield. 

EXAMPLE.  —  Milk  contains  3^  per  cent  protein,  4  per  cent 
fat,  5  per  cent  carbohydrate.  3!  :  5  plus  (4  times  2  J) : :  i :  4. 
The  nutritive  ratio  of  milk,  then,  is  1:4.  This  shows  that 
milk  contains  too  much  protein,  in  proportion  to  its  carbo- 
hydrate and  fat,  to  be  a  perfectly  balanced  food. 

The  nutritive  ratio  may  be  found  in  another  way.  If, 
in  addition  to  caring  to  know  the  proportion  of  tissue- 
building  to  energy-yielding  ingredients  in  a  food,  we  wish 
also  to  know  its  actual  fuel  value,  we  may  reduce  the 


52         NUTRITIVE  AND   FUEL  VALUE  OF  FOODS 

chemical  composition  proportion  to  calories,  and  find  the 
ratio,  by  comparing  the  protein  to  the  carbohydrate  plus 
the  fat,  all  having  been  reduced  to  calories. 

EXAMPLE.  —  Milk  contains  3^  per  cent  protein,  4  per  cent 
fat,  5  per  cent  carbohydrate.  If  one  pound  of  protein 
yields  1820  calories,  3!  per  cent  of  the  milk  would  yield 
64  calories;  4  per  cent  of  fat  would  yield  160  calories, 
5  per  cent  of  carbohydrate  would  yield  91  calories,  a 
total  of  315  calories  in  one  pound  of  milk. 

The  nutritive  ratio  would  be  64  calories:  160  calories 
plus  91  calories  1:1:4. 

From  these  figures  it  will  be  seen  that  one  pound,  or  two 
cups,  of  milk  will  yield  315  calories,  and  that  it  would  take 
nearly  eleven  pounds,  or  twenty- two  cups  of  milk  alone, 
to  supply  the  daily  needs  for  heat  and  energy  of  a  man 
engaged  in  moderately  active  muscular  work.  One  pound 
of  milk  contains  one  half  ounce  of  protein,  and  it  would  take 
eight  pounds  of  milk  to  supply  the  nitrogen  needed  daily. 
Milk  contains  so  much  water,  that  too  great  quantities 
would  have  to  be  consumed  if  one  were  to  try  to  live  on 
milk  alone. 

Its  nutritive  ratio  is  too  high  in  protein  to  make  it  a 
properly  balanced  food. 

Digestibility.  -  -  The  third  factor  which  affects  the  value 
of  any  food  is  its  digestibility.  By  this  is  meant,  not  ease 
of  digestion,  but  completeness  of  digestion,  or  how  much 
escapes  digestion.  A  food  may  contain  proper  nutritive 
ingredients  in  the  right  proportion  to  supply  the  needs  of 
the  body,  but  because  of  its  structure,  or  because  of  the 
changes  which  have  taken  place  in  cooking,  or  because  of 
individual  inability,  the  body  may  not  be  able  to  digest 
it,  A  food  is  of  no  use  to  the  body  until  it  has  passed  out 


NUTRITIVE  AND   FUEL  VALUE  OF  FOODS         53 

of  the  intestines  into  the  blood.  Only  then  is  it  available 
as  food. 

Because  of  this  factor,  digestibility,  it  would  seem  that 
a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  foods,  the  effect  of  heat  on 
them,  the  various  physical  and  chemical  changes  which 
take  place  during  cooking,  and  the  effect  of  each  on  digest- 
ibility is  of  utmost  importance. 

Structure  and  Cooking.  —  The  starch  and  protein  in 
vegetable  cells  are  inclosed  in  a  wall  of  cellulose.  This 
cellulose  is  indigestible  to  man,  but  is  valuable  in  that  it 
furnishes  bulk  which  stimulates  the  walls  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  aids  in  bringing  out  the  juices,  and  increases 
>eristaltic  movement.  Before  the  inclosed  starch  or 
protein  can  be  digested  some  means  must  be  found  to  free 
it  from  its  cell  walls.  Cooking  will  do  this  by  softening  the 
walls  and  by  causing  the  inclosed  starch  to  swell  and  burst 
the  walls.  For  this  reason,  cooking  is  necessary  before 
starchy  foods  can  be  digested. 

In  some  foods,  as  in  the  legumes,  the  starch  and  protein 
and  cellulose  are  so  intermixed  that  the  digestive  juices 
cannot  readily  act  on  the  protein,  and  much  escapes  diges- 
tion. The  heat,  which  renders  starch  digestible,  renders 
the  protein  less  so.  Animal  proteins,  because  they  are  not 
mixed  with  other  foods,  and  because  they  are  like  the  human 
body  in  structure,  are  more  completely  digested  than 
vegetable  protein;  97  per  cent  of  the  former  is  digestible 
and  87  per  cent  of  the  latter. 

Many  experiments  have  been  made  to  test  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  various  foods.  The  food  taken  in  and  the  food 
given  off  from  the  large  intestine  have  been  weighed 
and  analyzed,  and  the  difference  between  them  would 
equal  (practically)  the  amount  digested,  and  available  to 


54         NUTRITIVE  AND  FUEL  VALUE  OF  FOODS 

the  body.  This  amount  is  called  the  coefficient  of  digesti- 
bility of  the  foods. 

The  following,  taken  from  Farmer's  Bulletin,  No.  142,  sums 
up  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  as  a  result  of  investigation :  "  It  has  been 
found  that  in  the  total  food  of  the  ordinary  mixed  diet,  on 
the  average,  about  92  per  cent  of  the  protein,  95  per  cent 
of  the  fats,  and  97  per  cent  of  the  carbohydrates  are  re- 
tained by  the  body.  In  the  average  proportions  in  which 
the  different  animal  and  vegetable  foods  are  combined  in 
the  diet  about  97  per  cent  of  the  protein,  95  per  cent  of 
the  fat,  and  98  per  cent  of  the  carbohydrate  of  the  animal 
foods  are  digested;  while  only  84  per  cent  of  the  protein, 
90  per  cent  of  the  fat,  and  97  per  cent  of  the  carbohydrates 
of  the  vegetable  foods  are  digested. 

"  The  digestibility  of  a  given  article  of  food  depends 
upon  the  digestibility  of  the  classes  of  nutrients,  and  the 
relative  proportion  in  which  these  nutrients  occur.  Thus, 
of  two  cereals  containing  about  the  same  amount  of  dry 
matter,  but  with  different  proportions  of  protein  and  car- 
bohydrates, the  one  with  the  larger  proportion  of  less  di- 
gestible protein  and  the  smaller  proportion  of  more  digest- 
ible carbohydrates  will  be,  on  the  whole,  less  completely 
digested." 

Proportion  of  Carbohydrates  to  Fat. —  While  it  has  been 
stated  that  fats  and  carbohydrates  are  both  sources  of 
energy  to  the  body  and  may  be  used  interchangeably,  such 
is  not  the  case,  because  they  vary  in  digestibility.  There  is 
a  limit  to  the  amount  of  fat  which  any  individual  can  digest, 
and  while  the  limit  varies  with  different  individuals,  fat 
could  not  be  depended  on  for  the  total  supply  of  energy. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  amount  of  carbohydrates  which 


NUTRITIVE   AND   FUEL  VALUE  OF   FOODS         55 

would  supply  the  energy  needed  would  prove  too  bulky 
for  the  digestive  organs  and  would  leave  too  much  waste 
or  excreta.  It  has  been  found  that  the  best  proportion 
of  fat  to  carbohydrate,  as  regards  digestibility,  is  about 
i  to  2^,  or  i  part  fat  to  2\  parts  carbohydrates,  by 
weight. 

Mineral  Matter. —  It  is  customary  to  consider  only  the 
amount  of  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrate  in  the  diet,  and  to 
conclude  that  if  those  foods  are  in  the  right  proportion,  they 
will  also  supply  the  required  amount  of  mineral  matter. 
This  would  probably  be  true  if  foods  were  taken  in  their 
natural  state,  as  green  vegetables  and  fruits  are  eaten,  but 
many  foods  are  prepared  for  the  diet  in  such  a  way  that 
much  of  the  mineral  matter  is  lost.  This  is  true  of  wheat, 
rice,  corn,  and  the  other  cereals,  and  they  form  30  per  cent 
of  our  diet.  Sugar  and  fats  containing  no  mineral  matter 
would  furnish  10  per  cent  more.  It  would  seem  that  be- 
cause of  the  methods  of  preparing  foods  for  market  more 
careful  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  quantity  of  mineral 
matter  supplied.  As  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  page 
33,  mineral  matter  is  as  necessary  to  health  as  are  the  or- 
ganic foods,  and  as  it  aids  all  vital  processes  it  can  be  said 
that  it  is  essential  to  all  vital  processes.  Oxygen  and 
carbon  dioxide  cannot  be  carried  without  it,  so  it  is  essen- 
tial for  respiration ;  it  is  found  in  all  digestive  juices,  so  it 
is  necessary  for  digestion;  it  aids  absorption  and  excre- 
tion; is  essential  for  coagulation;  and  no  tissue  can  be 
built  without  it.  The  mineral  matter  needed  by  the 
body  is  of  too  great  importance  to  be  left  to  chance  to 
supply.  Foods  should  be  selected  that  contain  iron,  phos- 
phorus, calcium,  and  the  other  elements  in  greatest 
abundance. 


56         NUTRITIVE  AND   FUEL  VALUE  OF   FOODS 

ESTIMATED  AMOUNT  OF  MINERAL   MATTER  REQUIRED  DAILY  BY  A 
MAN  AT  MODERATELY  ACTIVE  MUSCULAR  WORK  (Langworthy) 


Phosphoric  Acid . 
Sulphuric  Acid  . 
Potassium  Oxide 
Sodium  Oxide  . 
Calcium  Oxide  . 
Magnesium  Oxide 
Iron  .... 
Chlorine  , 


3-4    grams 
2-3.5  grams 
2-3  grams 
4-6  grams 
.7-1  gram 
.3-.  5  gram 
.oo6-.oi2  gram 
6-8  grams 


FOODS  RICHEST  IN  MINERAL  MATTER 


IRON 

PHOSPHORUS 

CALCIUM 

SODIUM 

POTASSIUM 

lima   beans, 

navy  beans 

almonds 

beans 

beans 

dried 

egg  yolk 

beans 

peas 

peas 

navy  beans 

peas,  dried 

egg  yolk 

lentils 

lentils 

peas,  dried 

entire  wheat 

milk 

eggs 

figs 

entire  wheat 

flour 

peas 

spinach 

cocoa 

flour 

peanuts 

oatmeal 

carrots 

molasses 

spinach 

oatmeal 

walnuts 

celery 

bananas 

lean  beef 

almonds 

peanuts 

cauliflower 

lemons 

oatmeal 

walnuts 

eggs 

endive 

limes 

raisins 

lean  beef 

parsnips 

leeks 

pineapples 

eggs 

eggs 

carrots 

radishes 

oranges 

prunes 

low    grade 

oranges 

beets 

apricots 

beef,  medium 

flour 

prunes 

turnips 

cherries 

fat 

prunes 

entire  wheat 

rutabagas 

apples 

string  beans 

milk 

flour 

oatmeal 

nuts 

flour,  patent 

rice 

low  grade  flour 

corn 

rhubarb 

potatoes 

patent  flour 

beets 

wheat 

tomato 

corn  meal 

parsnips 

potatoes 

raisins 

parsnips 

cabbage 

potatoes 

pineapple 

prunes 

beets 

sweet  corn 

turnips 

turnips 

NUTRITIVE   AND   FUEL  VALUE  OF   FOODS          57 

FOODS    CONTAINING    LlTTLE    OR    No    IRON 

All   forms  of  fat,   as  pork,  bacon,  lard,  butter,  olive  oil,  also 
sugars,  starches,  candies. 


If  enough  protein  is  supplied,  there  will  be  enough  sul- 
phur in  the  diet ;  sodium  and  chlorine  are  supplied  in  com- 
mon salt. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  BALANCED  MEAL 

Reasons  for  Balanced  Meals.  —  All  meals,  no  matter 
how  meager,  insufficient,  or  poorly  balanced,  should  have 
some  little  attention  given  to  their  planning  for  one  or 
more  reasons. 

Variety  in  Diet.  -  -  The  first  reason  for  planning  meals  is 
to  satisfy  the  hunger  of  the  various  members  of  the  family. 
This  would  be  an  easy  matter  if  all  members  were  in  good 
health,  worked  all  day,  and  liked  most  of  the  foods  in  the 
market.  Hunger  is  the  best  sauce,  and  mere  abundance  of 
food  will  soon  satisfy  a  ravenous  appetite.  Such  conditions 
are  seldom  found,  however ;  and  in  many  families  much 
needless  worry  and  planning  are  occasioned  the  housekeeper 
because  some  members  of  the  family  have  prejudices 
against  certain  foods,  and  what  one  member  is  especially 
fond  of  another  may  loathe.  The  prejudices,  unless  well 
founded,  should  be  overcome,  because  when  the  finical 
person  is  obliged  to  live  away  from  home,  where  his  peculiar 
tastes  cannot  be  studied  and  catered  to,  he  is  apt  to  suffer. 
But  even  when  the  members  of  the  family  are  not  hard  to 
please,  the  planning  of  meals  requires  some  thought  so  as 
to  vary  the  diet  and  provide  the  unexpected,  as  the  same 
food,  day  after  day,  or  on  regular  days  in  the  week,  becomes 
monotonous  and  loses  savor. 

Cost.  —  A  factor  which  constantly  enters  into  the  cal- 
culations when  planning  meals  is  cost.  This  includes 

58 


THE   BALANCED   MEAL  59 

not  only  the  cost  of  the  food,  but  the  cost  of  the  fuel  used 
in  cooking  and  the  time  and  labor  spent  in  the  service  of  the 
meals.  The  problem  of  cost  of  foods  is  a  serious  one,  is 
threatening  to  become  more  serious  every  year,  and  de- 
mands greater  consideration  than  most  people  give  it.  The 
probabilities  are  that  the  increased  cost  of  living  is  not  due 
to  consumption  overtaking  production,  but  that  people 
demand  as  necessaries  of  life  what  were  once  considered 
luxuries.  If  some  attention  and  study  could  be  given  to  the 
factors  which  enter  into  the  fixing  of  the  market  price  of 
various  foods,  and  cheaper  foods,  equally  nutritious  and 
wholesome,  could  be  substituted  for  the  necessarily  high- 
priced  foods,  it  would  decrease  the  cost  of  living  materially. 

Judicious  marketing  .is  an  art  in  itself.  It  implies  a 
knowledge  of  the  proper  cuts  of  meat,  their  various  uses, 
the  distinction  between  a  cheap  cut  with  much  refuse  in  the 
form  of  bone  and  fat  or  a  higher-priced  cut  that  is  nearly  all 
flesh;  also  a  knowledge  of  the  various  vegetables,  when 
they  are  in  season,  in  what  quantities  it  is  best  to  purchase 
them,  their  food  value  and  place  in  the  diet,  and  the  effect 
of  size  on  flavor,  time  of  cooking,  and  nutritive  value. 

There  is  great  need  for  economy  and  judicious  buying 
in  foods  as  in  everything,  but  there  is  a  marked  distinction 
between  true  and  false  economy  in  foods.  It  is  a  great 
mistake  to  stint  the  table  and  nourish  the  family  poorly 
and  thus  lose  from  the  family  income  many  times  that 
amount  in  doctor's  bill,  medicine,  and  money  spent  by 
various  members  of  the  family  elsewhere  to  satisfy  the 
demands  of  hunger  or  a  craving  for  unwholesome  food. 

Supply  Needs  of  the  Body.  -  -  The  most  important  reason 
why  meals  should  be  carefully  planned  is  because  health, 
strength,  and  working  capacity  depend  on  the  food  which 


60  THE   BALANCED   MEAL 

we  eat.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  if  people  under- 
stood and  looked  after  three  vital  processes,  they  would 
never  be  sick ;  these  processes  are  breathing,  digestion,  and 
elimination  of  waste.  Imperfect  digestion  and  assimila- 
tion, and  accumulation  of  waste  products  in  the  system  are 
the  cause  of  nearly  three  fourths  of  all  diseases. 

The  human  body  can,  under  normal  conditions,  digest 
and  assimilate  a  certain  amount  of  food.  If  more  is  taken 
than  can  be  digested,  it  accumulates  as  waste.  All  foods 
undergo  chemical  change  in  the  body ;  they  are  broken  down 
into  simpler  substances  which  the  body  can  more  easily 
take  care  of.  The  decomposition  products  of  proteins  are 
removed  through  the  kidneys,  and  if  too  much  protein  food 
is  taken,  the  kidneys  are  overworked.  It  has  been  found 
that  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  protein  food  that  an  indi- 
vidual needs ;  anything  in  excess  of  this  is  harmful  because 
it  means  an  unnecessary  waste  of  energy  to  rid  the  system 
of  it.  This  can  be  avoided  by  a  study  of  the  composition 
and  digestibility  of  foods,  the  bodily  needs-  supplied  by 
the  various  foods,  and  the  amount  of  each  kind  of  food 
needed  by  the  individual  to  maintain  bodily  weight  and 
furnish  energy  needed  for  work  and  activity. 

A  diet  must  furnish  protein  enough  to  build  and  repair 
the  tissues  of  the  body.  The  need  for  protein  is  greater  in 
childhood  and  youth,  than  in  maturity  and  old  age,  because 
the  tissues  wear  out  more  rapidly  in  these  periods  and  they 
are  also  periods  of  growth.  Protein  and  mineral  matter 
should  be  supplied  so  that  tissues  will  not  suffer  and 
growth  will  not  be  stunted.  Weak,  stunted,  and  diseased 
bodies  are  more  apt  to  be  due  to  insufficient  and  poorly 
balanced  meals  than  to  inherited  weakness.  Mother 
Nature  is  too  often  blamed  for  imperfection,  when  a  little 


THE  BALANCED   MEAL  61 

knowledge  of  the  needs  and  demands  of  the  growing  body, 
and  what  foods  would  supply  these  demands,  would  have 
prevented  the  weakness  or  deformity. 

Much  is  said  and  written  about  the  excessive  consump- 
tion of  proteiru  foods.  While  men  may  consume  excessive 
amounts  of  protein,  observation  and  dietary  studies  show 
that  the  average  girl  and  working  woman  do  not  consume 
enough  protein,  but  consume  excessive  amounts  of  starchy 
foods  and  sugar.  For  this  reason,  vitality  and  resistant 
power  are  lower  than  they  should  be.  Then,  too,  iron, 
phosphorus,  and  calcium,  the  former  needed  in  greater 
quantities  by  growing  girls  and  women  than  by  men,  are 
lacking  in  the  starchy  foods  and  sugar,  but  are  abundant  in 
protein  foods,  and  in  green  vegetables  and  fruits.  If 
this  statement  as  to  the  diet  of  working  girls  and  women 
seems  exaggerated,  one  has  but  to  observe  the  meals 
ordered  in  cafes  and  restaurants  in  cities  where  women  take 
their  meals.  There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the 
lunches  ordered  by  a  man  and  by  a  woman,  and  the  dif- 
ference is  not  so  much  that  of  quantity,  which  would  be 
natural,  but  in  the  predominance  of  proteins  in  the  man's 
meal,  and  of  sugar  and  starchy  foods  in  the  woman's. 

The  diet  must  contain  enough  fat  and  carbohydrate  to 
maintain  temperature,  and  for  energy  to  carry  on  the 
vital  processes,  and  for  work  and  activity.  It  must 
contain  sufficient  bulk  in  the  form  of  cellulose  to  stimu- 
late the  intestine  so  that  the  intestinal  juice  will  be 
secreted  in  the  proper  amount,  also  to  stimulate  the  mus- 
cular walls  so  that  the  food  will  move  rapidly  enough  so 
that  putrefaction  will  not  take  place  and  the  indigestible 
food  can  be  expelled  from  the  body.  It  must  contain 
sufficient  water  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  tissues  and  fluids 


62  THE   BALANCED   MEAL 

of  the  body  and  to  aid  in  the  elimination  of  waste  through 
the  excretory  organs.  It  should  have  enough  mineral 
matter  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  tissues  and  fluids  and  to 
maintain  normal  alkalinity  of  the  blood  and  tissues.  It 
must  not  be  too  difficult  to  digest,  or  it  will  overtax  the 
digestive  organs.  Indigestibility  may  be  due  to  the  food 
itself,  to  the  method  or  manner  of  cooking,  or  to  the  mental 
or  physical  condition  of  the  individual. 

People  suffering  from  nervous  troubles  have  difficulty 
in  digesting  foods,  and  the  trouble  is  augmented  by  the  fact 
that  they  do  not  take  in  enough  food  to  feed  the  starved 
nerves  and  build  up  the  system,  or  to  give  energy.  Nervous 
indigestion  is  not  cured  by  taking  liquid  foods  or  small 
quantities  of  food,  but  by  building  up  the  general  health 
and  by  decreasing  nerve  strain.  General  health  is  improved 
by  a  good,  wholesome,  easily  digested,  and  balanced  daily 
ration. 

It  would  seem  that  too  much  attention  is  given  to  the 
overfeeding  of  the  better  classes  and  not  enough  emphasis 
laid  on  the  pernicious  underfeeding  and  excessive  consump- 
tion of  baker's  bread  and  other  starchy  foods  and  sugar,  by 
the  middle  and  lower  classes.  Enormous  quantities  of 
bakeshop  food  are  sold  to  people  who  do  not  know  the 
needs  of  the  body  for  building  material  and  who  desire  to 
satisfy  the  appetite  at  the  lowest  cost  and  in  the  quickest 
and  easiest  way. 

Wheat  made  into  white  flour  has  lost  over  two  thirds  of 
its  mineral  matter  and  over  2  percent  protein  in  milling; 
and  from  dietary  studies  made  by  Langworthy  it  would 
seem  that  white  flour  furnishes  over  10  per  cent  of  our 
diet,  and  refined  corn  products  furnish  over  8  per  cent. 

Even   though  meat,   butter,   eggs,  and   milk  are  high- 


THE  BALANCED   MEAL  63 

priced  they  are  cheap  when  compared  with  the  cost  of  medi- 
cine, medical  attention,  and  loss  of  wages  during  sickness 
occasioned  by  underfeeding.  Tuberculosis,  the  disease 
responsible  for  one  third  of  all  deaths  in  America,  be- 
tween the  ages  of  15  and  45,  is  due  to  under  nutrition  and 
lack  of  protein  foods,  as  well  as  to  foul  air  and  tuberculosis 
germs. 

Men  have  greater  resistant  power  than  women,  more 
energy,  more  vitality,  less  sickness.  This  is  due,  in  part 
at  least,  to  the  fact  that  they  eat  wholesome  and  nutritious 
foods  in  quantity  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  body,  when 
they  can  get  it,  and  consume  but  little  sugar.  It  is  noted 
that  women  with  strong  vitality  and  energy  consume  much 
the  same  diet  as  men,  though  not  in  as  great  quantities, 
while  those  with  less  vitality  consume  more  starchy  foods, 
especially  foods  lacking  in  mineral  matter.  Why  may  not 
the  increased  vitality  be  due  to  proper  diet,  instead  of  the 
taste  for  wholesome  foods  being  due  to  bodily  vigor? 
At  any  rate,  the  taste  for  nutritious  foods  could  easily  be 
cultivated  if  the  general  effect  of  such  a  diet  on  health 
were  known  and  heeded. 

Practical  Value  of  Balanced  Meals.  —  The  question 
might  be  asked,  of  what  practical  value  to  the  busy  house- 
keeper is  the  planning  of  meals,  and  can  any  family  live 
according  to  a  standard  set  arbitrarily  ? 

It  does  not  mean  that  any  dietary  standard  should  be 
selected,  and  all  members  of  the  family  compelled  to  live 
according  to  that  standard.  It  will  be  found,  however, 
that  the  Atwater  standard  is  ample  for  all  needs,  that  a  little 
less  than  the  standard  may  suffice  some,  but  that  if  a  family 
attempts  to  live  according  to  a  standard  it  will  soon  become 
accustomed  to  it  and  adopt  it.  Standards  are  not  arbitrary 


64  THE   BALANCED   MEAL 

figures,  but  guides  to  the  best  means  of  supplying  the  needs 
of  the  body.  They  are  made  for  those  who  must  take 
the  knowledge  and  investigations  of  men  who  have  devoted 
their  lives  to  the  study  of  questions  of  nutrition,  until  they 
can  find  out  that  certain  changes  are  necessary. 

The  planning  of  balanced  meals  is  a  method  of  conducting 
the  business  of  housekeeping  on  an  accurate  and  scentific 
basis,  and  that  is  the  basis  on  which  every  other  business 
is  conducted.  First,  it  lessens  the  cost  of  the  meal.  If  the 
amount  actually  needed  by  each  individual  is  prepared  and 
served,  there  will  be  no  waste,  and  from  the  dietary  studies 
made  by  Langworthy  it  was  found  that  in  the  average 
American  home  "  waste  ranges  from  nothing  to  20  per  cent 
of  the  total  food." 

When  the  amount  to  be  spent  on  a  meal  is  decided  on, 
more  attention  is  paid  to  the  cost  of  such  items  as  fruit, 
cream,  butter,  meat,  etc.,  and  goods  are  purchased  in 
season,  and  in  quantities  so  as  to  save  expense.  The  table 
of  nutritive  values  is  studied,  and  less  expensive  foods, 
equally  nutritious,  are  substituted  for  the  high-priced  foods. 

Second,  the  planning  of  balanced  meals  saves  time  in 
preparation.  When  meals  are  planned  one  day  or  more 
ahead,  time  and  labor  are  economized  in  marketing  and  in 
preparation,  because  they  are  planned  with  reference  to 
other  meals,  and  many  foods  are  prepared  the  day  before 
they  are  to  be  used. 

More  important  still,  when  meals  are  planned  according 
to  some  accepted  standard  to  serve  the  food  requirements 
of  the  body,  a  study  may  be  made  as  to  how  such  meals 
satisfy  the  sense  of  hunger  and  please  the  taste,  for  that  is 
the  first  demand  of  the  meal.  It  can  be  ascertained  whether 
the  members  of  the  family  are  gaining  or  losing  weight, 


Loin 


Hind  quarter 

CUTS  OF  MUTTON 


THE  BALANCED   MEAL  65 

whether  strength  and  working  power  are  maintained,  and 
if  the  resistant  power  of  the  body  to  colds  and  common 
diseases  is  strong.  The  effect  of  the  diet  on  the  organs  of 
elimination  can  be  ascertained.  Constipation  is  one  of  the 
causes  of  low  vitality,  feeble  resistant  power,  appendicitis, 
liver  and  intestinal  troubles,  because  the  blood  and  muscles 
become  saturated  with  decomposition  products,  as  gases 
and  poisons,  which  are  absorbed  by  the  capillaries  of  the 
large  intestine  and  enter  the  blood ;  it  can  be  remedied  by 
diet. 

Properly  balanced  meals  which  serve  the  food  require- 
ments of  each  individual  will  maintain  a  person  in  perfect 
health  for  a  normal  life,  if  pure  air  is  supplied,  and  waste 
products  are  properly  eliminated  from  the  body. 


CONLEY,  N.  &  D.  —  5 


CHAPTER  VI 
PLANNING   OF  MEALS 

FOR  the  purpose  of  this  book,  it  matters  little  what 
dietary  standard  is  used  in  planning  meals.  When  the 
method  of  planning  is  learned,  each  person  can  decide  for 
himself  which  standard  to  follow.  The  important  point 
is  to  learn  how  to  plan  meals  easily,  quickly,  and  accurately 
according  to  any  standard. 

The  meals  should  supply  all  the  needs  of  the  body  and 
satisfy  the  sense  of  hunger.  They  should  be  attractive,  ap- 
petizing, and  planned  so  that  they  may  be  served  in  a  simple 
manner.  The  cost  of  meals  should  be  moderate.  Most 
of  the  drudgery  of  housework  results  from  an  attempt  to 
serve  too  many  different  kinds  of  foods  at  a  meal  and  to 
serve  the  food  in  too  many  courses.  If  one  person  is  pre- 
paring and  serving  the  meal,  it  is  difficult  for  her  to  get 
all  foods  prepared  at  the  right  time  and  to  keep  them  warm 
until  needed ;  and  when  many  courses  are  served,  there  is 
an  increase  in  the  number  of  dishes  to  be  washed.  A  few 
foods,  well  cooked  and  served  in  a  dainty  and  appetizing 
form,  please  better  than  a  dozen  poorly  cooked  foods  served 
cold  when  they  should  be  served  hot. 

The  serving  should  be  taught  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
can  be  practiced  in  any  home,  the  object  of  all  the  work  in 
the  school  being  to  improve  home  conditions,  and  for  this 
reason  all  directions  are  given  in  terms  that  the  average 
girl  can  understand. 

66 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS  67 

Nothing  is  said  of  the  100- calorie  portion,  or  method  of 
planning  meals,  because  while  that  method  is  useful  in 
planning  meals  for  individuals  or  to  show  graphically  the 
amount  of  nutrients  in  a  portion  of  food,  it  is  of  little  value 
to  the  busy  housekeeper  who  is  planning  the  family  meals. 

All  values  are  given  in  pounds,  not  grams,  because  the 
gram  means  nothing  to  a  person  outside  of  a  chemical  lab- 
oratory. Foods  are  bought  and  sold  by  the  pound,  and  the 
scales  used  in  the  home  weigh  pounds. 

For  the  same  reason — familiarity  —  all  temperatures 
used  are  Fahrenheit.  Until  the  Centigrade  thermometer 
is  used  in  the  home  it  is  useless  and  confusing  to  give 
temperatures  which  the  average  girl  cannot  translate. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  PLANNING  MEALS 
PLANNING  A  BREAKFAST 

A  breakfast  should  consist  of,  — 
I.   Fruit  in  some  form,  preferably  fresh. 

II.   Cereal,  best  from  the  whole  of  the  grain,  and  cheapest  if  pur- 
chased unprepared  for  use. 

III.  Some  protein  dish,  as  eggs,  fish,  hash,  or  a  small  quantity  of 

meat.     Unless  eggs  are  very  high  in  price  they  are  always 
better  and  cheaper  than  meat  for  breakfast. 

IV.  Some  form  of  bread,  as  toast,  bread,  muffins,  biscuit,  popovers, 

griddle  cakes,  rolls,  etc. 
V.   A  hot  drink,  as  coffee  or  cocoa,  if  desired. 

The  cost  of  the  food  should  not  exceed  eight  cents  per 
person,  and  the  meal  may  be  planned  so  that  the  cost  will 
not  exceed  five  cents  per  person.  Fruits  and  eggs  should 
be  served  in  season,  for  then  the  prices  are  moderate. 
Uncooked  breakfast  foods  cost  less  than  half  what  pre- 
pared foods  cost,  and  they  may  be  cooked  in  the  tireless 


68  PLANNING  OF  MEALS 

cooker  the  day  before,  thus  saving  time  in  preparation. 
Dried  fruits,  as  dates,  figs,  and  prunes,  may  be  chopped  and 
added  to  the  cereal. 

Toast,  rolls,  and  griddle  cakes  take  less  time  to  prepare 
than  muffins,  popovers,  and  biscuits. 

A  breakfast  should  not  take  more  than  thirty  minutes  to 
prepare.  This  should  include  laying  the  table  and  all 
preparatory  work.  Unless  in  case  of  sickness,  all  members 
of  the  family  should  eat  breakfast  together.  If  several 
breakfasts  must  be  prepared,  it  adds  to  the  labors  of  the 
housekeeper.  No  child  should  be  allowed  to  go  to  school 
without  breakfast. 

PLANNING  A  DINNER 
A  dinner  should  consist  of,  — 

I.   Meat.    May  be  served  as  roast,  stew,  meat  loaf,  meat  pie,  or 

in  any  other  convenient  form. 

II.  Potatoes  and  one  other  vegetable,  as  peas,  beans  in  fresh  form, 
a  root  or  tuber,  or  one  of  the  green  vegetables  that  require 
cooking.  These  may  be  served  mashed,  creamed,  fried, 
scalloped,  or  baked.  Bread. 

III.  Salad,  when  possible.     It  should  be  a  green  vegetable  with  some 

kind  of  salad  dressing.  Heavy  salads  should  not  be  served 
with  dinner,  but  may  form  the  principal  dish  at  lunch  or 
supper. 

IV.  Dessert. 

V.    Tea  or  coffee,  if  desired. 

Soup  is  not  necessary  at  dinner  and  may  well  be  omitted, 
as  it  takes  some  extra  work  to  prepare  it  and  it  is  hard  to 
keep  the  remainder  of  the  dinner  in  condition  while  soup 
is  being  served  unless  some  one  is  in  the  kitchen. 

The  cost  of  dinner  will  range  from  ten  to  sixteen  cents  a 
person.  It  depends  primarily  on  the  amount  spent  for  meat. 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS  69 

PLANNING  LUNCH  OR  SUPPER 

A  lunch,  served  at  noon  when  dinner  is  served  at  night,  or  supper 
should  consist  of,  — 

I.  A  hot  meat  dish,  as  chops,  meat  pie,  etc. ;  or  a  cheese  dish,  as 
macaroni  and  cheese,  cheese  fondue,  or  rarebit ;  or  cold  meat ; 
or  a  salad ;  or  a  cream  soup. 
II.   Potatoes.     Bread. 

III.  Sauce  and  some  form  of  cake. 

IV.  Tea,  cocoa,  or  milk,  if  desired. 

As  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  table  of  "  Calories 
per  Recipe,"  page  100,  a  cream  soup  contains  enough  nu- 
trients to  supply  the  food  requirements  for  lunch  or  supper, 
if  served  with  bread. 

Lunch  or  supper  should  cost  from  six  to  ten  cents  per 
person. 

The  standard  used  in  planning  meals  is  the  Atwater 
standard  for  food  requirements  for  a  man  engaged  in  mod- 
erately active  muscular  work.  Atwater  estimated  that 
such  a  man  would  require  450  calories  protein,  2950  cal- 
ories fat  and  carbohydrate. 

One  fourth  of  this  amount  would  make  a  fair  proportion 
for  breakfast  or  supper,  and  one  half  the  amount  for 
dinner.  Some  people  eat  a  very  light  breakfast  and  a 
heavy  dinner  and  supper;  some  prefer  the  heavy  meal  at 
night  or  dinner,  and  a  light  breakfast  and  supper,  or  lunch. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  every  meal  should  be  balanced, 
though  it  is  desirable,  but  the  daily  ration  should  supply 
the  right  number  of  calories  in  the  right  proportion. 

If  the  Atwater  standard  is  taken  as  a  basis,  or  any 
standard  for  that  matter,  by  using  the  table  on  page  50, 
the  amount  of  food  needed  by  the  different  members  of 
the  family  can  be  ascertained.  The  sum  of  the  require- 


70  PLANNING  OF  MEALS 

ments  of  the  members  of  the  family  will  be  the  amount 
to  be  prepared,  and  the  food  may  be  served  in  the  portions 
required. 

To  simplify  the  work  of  calculating  dietaries,  a  table  has 
been  prepared  showing  the  calories  per  pound  in  the  com- 
mon foods.  All  calculations  for  meals  can  be  made  on  the 
basis  of  a  pound  or  ounce  or  the  fractions  thereof.  A  few 
common  recipes,  as  biscuit,  muffins,  bread,  pie  crust,  etc., 
have  been  worked  out  and  are  given  in  the  table,  "Calories 
per  Recipe. "  (See  page  100.) 

The  number  of  calories  in  any  food  not  given  in  the  table 
may  be  found  by  multiplying  1820  by  the  percentage  com- 
position of  protein  or  carbohydrate,  and  4040  by  the  per- 
centage composition  of  fat;  the  figures  given  above  are 
the  number  of  calories  in  a  pound  of  protein,  fat,  or  carbo- 
hydrate. 

Bulletin  No.  28,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  contains  tables  showing  the  percentage  com- 
position of  all  foods  in  use  in  the  average  home.  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  No.  142,  also  gives  the  composition  of  many  of 
the  common  foods.  This  bulletin  may  be  obtained  free  of 
charge  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

A  few  measurements  that  will  be  found  useful  in  planning 
and  preparing  meals  are  given  to  simplify  the  work  of  cal- 
culating. A  table  grouping  foods  according  to  equivalent 
nutritive  values  is  supplied  so  that  substitutions  may  be 
suggested  to  the  housekeeper. 

At  the  close  of  the  chapter  a  few  sample  menus  are  given 
that  were  prepared  and  served  according  to  the  plans  formu- 
lated in  this  book.  They  were  part  of  the  domestic  science 
work  of  a  class  of  students.  Each  student  was  given  a 
certain  amount  of  money  with  which  to  purchase  the 


PLANNING  OF   MEALS  71 

food.  She  planned  and  balanced  the  meals,  did  the  mar- 
keting, cooking,  serving,  and  washed  the  dishes  afterwards, 
leaving  the  kitchen  and  dining  room  in  order.  Each  girl 
was  responsible  for  three  meals.  The  meals  were  served 
to  fellow  students  and  teacher  as  guests.  The  practice  and 
training  form  the  most  valuable  part  of  a  domestic  science 
mrse,  as  the  pupils  are  limited  in  money  and  in  time  spent 

preparing  the  meal  to  the  same  limitations  which  exist 

the  average  home. 

)DS  GROUPED  ACCORDING  TO  FAIRLY  EQUIVALENT 
NUTRITIVE  VALUES 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS.    Food  value.    Carbohydrate  and  mineral  matter. 
Include  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  onions,  rutabagas,  turnips, 
beets,  parsnips,  celeriac,  artichokes,  etc.     Served  boiled,  mashed, 
creamed,  scalloped,  fried. 

CEREALS.     Food  Value.     Protein  and  carbohydrate  in  proportion  of 
about  i :  6.    Include  wheat,  oats,  corn,  rye,  barley,  rice,  buck- 
wheat.    Prepared  mostly  as  flours,  meals,  and  breakfast  foods. 
LEGUMES.     Food  value.     Protein  and  carbohydrate  in  proportion  of 
about  1:3. 

Include  peas,  beans,  lentils,  peanuts. 

Contain  so  much  protein  that  they  are  a  substitute  for  meat. 
Served  boiled,  creamed,  in  soups,  and  in  other  forms. 
GREEN  VEGETABLES.     Food  value.     Chiefly  in  the  mineral  salts  and 
cellulose. 

Include  celery,  lettuce,  cucumbers,  endive,  cress,  cabbage, 
tomatoes,  spinach,  green  corn,  egg  plant,  salsify,  squash,  Brussels 
sprouts,  etc. 

First  seven  are  best  served  green  as  salad.     All  but  lettuce, 
endive,  and  cress  may  be  boiled  and  served  in  various  ways. 
FRESH  FRUITS.     Food  value.     Mostly  in  the  vegetable  acids. 

Include  apples,  oranges,  lemons,  grapefruit,  grapes,  bananas, 
berries,  plums,  cherries,  peaches,  pears,  etc. 

Served  fresh,  also  canned  and  used  as  sauce,  etc. 


PLANNING   OF   MEALS 


DRIED  FRUITS.    Food  value.     Mostly  sugar  and  cellulose. 
Include  figs,  dates,  raisins,  currants,  fresh  fruits  dried. 
Served  in  a  variety  of  forms. 
FATS.     Nutritive  value  in  the  fat. 

Include  all  animal  fats,  as  butter,  lard,  etc.,  also  vegetable 
fats,  as  olive  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  peanut  oil,  corn  oil,  cocoa  fat,  and 
butterine,  and  other  prepared  fats. 
MILK.     Food  value.     Protein,  carbohydrate  and  fat  in  proportion  of 

1:4. 
CHEESE.    Food  value.    Protein   and   fat,  in  proportion  of   1:2^. 

Substitute  for  meat. 

MEATS.  Food  value.  Mostly  protein.  They  all  contain  fat  in 
varying  amounts,  and  much  fat  is  lost  in  cooking  or  is  not  served, 
so  the  nutritive  ratio  cannot  be  given. 

Served  as  steaks,  chops,  roasts,  stews,  or  as  meat  loaf,  etc. 
FISH.     Food  value.     Same  as  meat. 

Served  boiled,  fried,  baked,  creamed,  and  in  other  forms. 

MEASUREMENTS  FOR  PLANNING  MEALS 


QUANTITY  IN  ONE  LB. 

QUANTITY  IN  ONE  Oz. 

Flour  sifted 

3T  CUDS 

3^  tablespoons 

Flour  unsifted                . 

•2  CUDS 

3  tablespoons 

Sugar 

2  CUpS 

2  tablespoons 

Butter  

2  CUDS 

2  tablespoons 

Lard     

2  CUpS 

2  tablespoons 

Oatmeal     

4  CUDS 

4  tablespoons 

Cream  of  Wheat       .... 
Shredded  Wheat       .... 
Milk     

2  CUpS 

1  6  biscuits 
2  cups  (about) 

2  tablespoons 
i  biscuit 
2  tablespoons 

2  cups  (about) 

2  tablespoons 

EggS 

o  large 

I  egg  ITT  OZ. 

Quantity  in  one  pound 


Oranges,  2  large,  as  purchased. 
Apples,  4  medium,  as  purchased. 
Bananas,  4  medium,  as  purchased. 
Potatoes,  2  large,  as  purchased. 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS  73 

The  following  meals  were  planned  and  served  by  girls 
over  fifteen  years  of  age ;  each  meal  was  planned  for  six 
people. 

The  amount  required  was  first  ascertained  ;  then  the 
meals  were  planned  to  furnish  the  required  amount.  The 
amount  needed  for  six  girls  was  then  prepared,  served  in 
equal  portions,  and  consumed. 

All  calculations  were  made  on  the  basis  of  a  pound  or 
ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  Meat  and  fish  were  weighed 
as  purchased,  vegetables  were  weighed  as  prepared  for 
cooking. 

Girls  over  fifteen  years  of  age  would  require  T8^  of  the 
standard  accepted.  According  to  the  Atwater  standard 
they  would  require  360  calories  protein,  and  2360  calories 
fat  and  carbohydrate  daily.  One  fourth  of  this  amount, 
90  calories  protein,  and  590  calories  fat  and  carbohydrate, 
would  be  the  amount  prepared  for  breakfast,  lunch,  or 
supper,  and  one  half  of  this  amount,  180  calories  protein, 
and  1 1 80  calories  fat  and  carbohydrate,  for  dinner. 

In  the  meals  given  in  the  following  pages  this  proportion 
was  followed  as  closely  as  possible. 

The  meals  in  the  last  menu  were  divided  so  as  to  furnish 
a  heavier  meal  for  supper  and  a  lighter  meal  for  dinner  than 
in  the  preceding  menus.  The  total  calories  are  the  same, 
however. 

In  several  breakfast  menu's  the  time  for  preparation  is 
given  to  show  how  the  detailed  work  is  planned  and  carried 
out.  It  is  not  considered  necessary  to  give  the  plan  of 
work  for  each  meal. 


74 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


DAILY    MENUS 

STANDARD:  360  CALORIES  PROTEIN,  2360  CALORIES  FAT  AND 
CARBOHYDRATE 

J  for  breakfast,  \  for  dinner,  }  for  supper 
Menu  Number  One 


CALORIES  PROTEIN 


CALORIES  FAT  AND 
CARBOHYDRATE 


Breakfast 85  596 

Dinner 178  1181 

Supper oo 574 

353  2351 

Menu  Number  Two 

Breakfast 88  589 

Dinner 183  1176 

Supper 90  594 

361  2359 

Menu  Number  Three 

PROTEIN  CALORIES  FAT  AND 
CARBOHYDRATE 

Breakfast 90  583 

Dinner.     ......                  175  1189 

Supper 91  598 

356  2370 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 
Menu  Number  Four 


75 


CALORIES  PROTEIN 

CALORIES  FAT  AND 
CARBOHYDRATE 

Breakfast 

87 

CQ-2 

Dinner  

1  80 

1166 

SuDDer  . 

04. 

607 

36l 

2366 

Menu  Number  Five 


CALORIES  PROTEIN 

CALORIES  FAT  AND 
CARBOHYDRATE 

Breakfast  

88 

CQ2 

Dinner                  .... 

183 

1178 

Supper            

8n 

c87 

360 

2358 

Menu  Number  Six 


CALORIES  PROTEIN 

CALORIES  FAT  AND 
CARBOHYDRATE 

Breakfast 

86 

^84 

Dinner  

IQ4. 

1184 

Supper  

83 

596 

363 

2364 

Menu  Number  Seven 


CALORIES  PROTEIN 

CALORIES  FAT  AND 
CARBOHYDRATE 

Breakfast 

OO 

CQO 

Dinner 

y** 

184 

DV** 

1184 

Supper  

83 

587 

357 

2361 

for  breakfast,  -f^  for  dinner,  -f%  for  supper 


76 


PLANNING  OF   MEALS 


Menu  Number  Eight 


CALORIES  PROTEIN 

CALORIES  FAT  AND 
CARBOHYDRATE 

Breakfast  

82 

rgo 

Dinner             .... 

161 

juy 
1008 

Supper       

117 

7  CO 

/  jy 

360 

2356 

MENU 
BREAKFAST 

Bananas 

Wheat  Breakfast  Food  and  Cream 

Creamed  Dried  Beef     Biscuit 

Coffee 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Bananas    

i£  lb. 

^6 

^6 

1:72 

Wheat  Breakfast  Food  . 
Cream  

6  oz. 

4  OZ. 

69 
12 

27 
18? 

506 
21 

Milk     

4OZ. 

1C 

4.1 

23 

Dried  Beef     .... 
White  Sauce  .... 
Sugar    

8  oz. 
iR. 

2  OZ. 

240 

37 

140 

297 

"89 
228 

Butter  

2   OZ. 

2 

4.20 

Coffee  

I  OZ. 

Biscuits     

JR. 

98 

341 

641 

Total       .     .     . 

509 

I498 

2081 

For  six  people :     509  Cal.  Protein. 

3579  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

Per  person :  85  Cal.  Protein. 

596  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


77 


Breakfast  to  be  served  at  7.30  A.M. 
7 . 10  —  Make  biscuit. 
7.15  —  Take  wheat  from  fireless  cooker  and  put  it  on  the  stove, 

set  table,  put  on  fruit. 
7.25  —  Make  coffee. 
7.30  —  Serve  breakfast. 

Cost  $.48. 

TIME    FOR    PREPARATION 

Bananas — i  min. 

Wheat  flakes  (day  before)  in  fireless  cooker. 

Dried  beef  —  10  min. 

Biscuit — 20  min. 

Coffee  —  5  min. 


MENU 
DINNER 


Beef  Loaf 
Browned  Potatoes 

Fruit  Salad 
Washington  Pie 


Tomato  Sauce 

Creamed  Onions 
Bread 

Coffee 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Beef  Loaf  . 

iR 

CTQO 

1^62 

48 

Tomato  Sauce      .     .     . 
Potatoes    

i  R. 

2i  Ib. 

41 
oo 

441 
9 

186 
7^8 

Onions       

i  A  Ib. 

28 

16 

216 

White  Sauce  .... 
Oranges     .... 

i  R. 

il  Ib. 

44 

21 

296 
10 

130 
263 

Bananas 

1  Ib 

18 

18 

286 

Salad  D  

i  R. 

36 

2^2 

72 

Bread  

8  oz. 

84 

26 

482 

Butter  

2  OZ. 

2 

428 

Cake     

1  R 

86 

286 

808 

Cream  . 

2 

6  oz 

17 

280 

•21 

Sugar   . 

2   OZ 

227 

Coffee  

I   OZ. 

.... 

Total     .     .     . 

1067 

3604 

3487 

Per  person:  178  Cal.  Protein;  1181  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

Cost  $.72. 


PLANNING   OF   MEALS 


MENU 
SUPPER 

Cold  Roast  Pork        Potatoes  in  Half  Shell 

Bread 
Canned  Peaches          Plain  Cake 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Pork     . 

I  lb 

282 

^86 

Potatoes 

I  lb 

4.O 

A 

128 

Bread 

12  OZ 

I2C 

4.O 

72<; 

Plain  cake      .... 
Peaches 

1JL 

i  lb 

42 
11 

143 

404 
I7O 

Sugar 

2  OZ 

228 

Butter 

2  OZ 

2 

4.28 

Milk 

8  oz 

•2Q 

81 

46 

Frosting 

I  R 

6 

227 

*    "    *    * 

Total       .     .     . 

540 

1286 

2155 

For  six  people:     540  Cal.  Protein. 

3441  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 


For  one  person : 


90  Cal.  Protein. 
574  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


79 


MENU 
BREAKFAST 

Baked  Apples 

Oatmeal  and  Cream 

Scrambled  Eggs  and  Muffins 

Coffee 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Baked  apples 
Oatmeal 

ii  lb. 
6  oz 

II 
114. 

30 
III 

356 
A<I 

Cream 

4  oz 

12 

187 

T-0-1 

22 

Milk     

4.  OZ. 

1C 

42 

22 

Eggs 

12  OZ. 

170 

282 

Muffins      

i  R. 

IQ7 

624. 

8« 

Sugar    .          . 

2  OZ 

228 

Butter 

I?   OZ 

2 

•2  2O 

Coffee 

1^  OZ 

Total  .... 

530 

1596 

iQ35 

For  six  people :     530  Cal.  Protein. 

3531  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

Per  person  :  88  Cal.  Protein. 

589  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 


TIME    FOR   PREPARATION 

Baked  apples,  prepared  the  day  before. 
Oatmeal  cooked  in  fireless  cooker  the  night  before. 
Muffins  —  30  min. 
Coffee  —  5  min. 
Scrambled  eggs  —  5-10  min. 

Breakfast  to  be  served  at  7.30.     Start  breakfast  at  7.00. 
Cost,  $.50. 


8o 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


Leg  of  Lamb 
Squash 


MENU 
DINNER 

Riced  Potatoes 
Cabbage  Salad 
Bread 


Banana  Pie 


Coffee 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Lamb 

21  lb. 

6^O 

1231; 

Cabbage 

I  lb. 

2^ 

8 

07 

Squash 

ij  lb. 

2Q 

?O 

246 

Bananas 

8  oz. 

12 

12 

IOI 

Potato 

2i  lb. 

IOO 

IO 

820 

"Rcrorc 

?i  OZ 

C2 

82 

Sugar 

0  OZ. 

IO23 

Cream 

12  OZ 

•2A 

^60 

61 

Bread 

0  OZ. 

04. 

•2Q 

?42 

Salad    

i  R. 

36 

232 

72 

Butter 

4  OZ. 

4. 

8^8 

Milk 

2  OZ. 

7 

2O 

II 

Pie  crust 

\  R. 

44 

•JI1 

3O3 

Corn  starch    .... 

I   OZ. 

IO2 

Total       .      .     . 

1097 

3590 

3468 

Per  person:  183  Cal.  Protein;  1176  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 
Cost,  $.90. 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


81 


MENU 
SUPPER 

Baked  Macaroni  and  Cheese 
Lettuce  and  Egg  Salad 

Bread 
Canned  Pears  Cake 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Macaroni                        . 

i  lb 

62 

337 

Cheese  

T3e  lb. 

88 

2CC 

8 

Lettuce      

8  oz. 

ii 

6 

26 

Cake     

£  R. 

64 

214. 

606 

Pears    

i  lb 

16 

231 

Bread    .           .     . 

8  oz 

84. 

26 

4.83 

Butter 

2  OZ 

2 

4.2O 

^f^O 

White  sauce  (no  butter) 
Salad  dressing 
Eggs 

iiR. 
*R. 
8  oz. 

66 

37 
no 

232 
232 

1  88 

I96 

72 

*      "      *      * 

Total  .     .     .     . 

542 

1607 

1959 

Per  person :  90  Cal.  Protein ;  594  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 


CONLEY,  N.  &D. 6 


82 


PLANNING  OF   MEALS 


MENU 
BREAKFAST 

Oranges 

Cream  of  Wheat  and  Cream 

Omelet  Muffins 

Coffee 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Cream  of  wheat  .     .     . 
Oranges           .... 

6  oz. 
2\  lb. 

83 
-22 

27 
17 

513 
4.4.8 

Cream       

4  OZ. 

12 

187 

21 

Milk     .     .           .     . 

4  OZ. 

1  1; 

4:1 

23 

Muffins 

i  R. 

189 

612 

•^o 
844 

Butter            .     . 

I^  OZ 

2 

•222 

Eees 

14.  OZ 

2O8 

32O 

Sugar 

I   OZ 

114. 

Coffee 

I  OZ 

Total.     .     .     . 

541 

1535 

1963 

For  six  people :     541  Cal.  Protein. 

3498  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

Per  person :  90  Cal.  Protein. 

583  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 


TIME    FOR    PREPARATION 

Cream  of  wheat  —  30  min. 
Muffins  —  30  min. 
Omelet — 10  min. 
Coffee  —  5  min. 

Breakfast  to  be  served  at  7.30.     Start  breakfast  at  7  A.M. 
Cost,  $.47. 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


MENU 
DINNER 

Mutton  Stew  and  Dumplings  Potatoes 

Onions         Carrots         Rutabagas  in  Stew 

Bread  Tea 

Caramel  Ice  Cream  Cake 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Mutton  stew  . 
Potato       

ij  lb. 

483 
60 

1204 

6 

472 

Carrots      .     .     .     .     . 
Onions       

ilb. 

5  °z- 

2O 
o 

16 

A 

168 

Rutabagas      .... 
Bread 

i  lb. 
6  oz 

24 

6^ 

8 
20 

i33 

Butter  
Milk     

ii  oz. 
i  lb. 

2 
60 

321 
162 

01 

Cream  

i  lb. 

46 

747 

82 

Eggs 

4  OZ. 

crn 

04 

Flour 

fib.    ' 

27 

QIO 

Lard 

I   OZ. 

2^2 

Sugar    . 

8  oz. 

OIO 

Cake     

JR. 

86 

286 

808 

Tea      

Total       .     .     . 

1050 

3H7 

3989 

Per  j>erson:  175  Cal.  Protein;  1189  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

Cost,  $.65. 


84 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


MENU 
SUPPER 

Cold  Roast  Beef  Fried  Potatoes 

Bread 

Peaches  Nut  Cake 

Tea 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Beef     

I  lb. 

2Q2 

7O7 

Potatoes    

I  lb 

4.O 

328 

Bread  

12  OZ 

12  ^ 

A-2 

o^u 

72C 

Peaches     

i  lb. 

17 

/•*o 

IO7 

Lard    

I   OZ 

2C2 

*V/ 

Butter       

•2   OZ 

•7 

64.4. 

Sugar  

2  OZ 

228 

Cake    

1  R 

42 

14.2 

J.OJ. 

Milk               .     . 

8  oz 

-20 

8l 

4.6 

545 

I658 

1928 

For  six  people:  545  Cal.  Protein;  3586  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

For  one  person :     91  Cal.  Protein ;    598  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

Cost,  $.48. 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


MENU 
BREAKFAST 

Bananas  Cream  of  Wheat 

Poached  Eggs  on  Toast 

Coffee 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Bananas    

i  lb. 

2A 

24. 

382 

Cream  of  wheat 
Bread  

fib. 

i  lb 

110 
l6? 

36 

C2 

684 
066 

Butter  

2  OZ 

2 

4.20 

Cream  . 

8  oz 

23 

•274. 

4.1 

Milk 

4  oz 

*o 

T  [? 

4.O 

21 

Eggs 

12  OZ 

A  J 

178 

282 

Sugar   

2  OZ 

227 

Coffee  

I  OZ 

Total     .     .     . 

^  

519 

1237 

2323 

Per  person :  87  Cal.  Protein ;  593  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 
Cost,  $.43. 


86 


PLANNING  OF   MEALS 


MENU 
DINNER 

Fried  Chicken  Mashed  Potatoes 

Jelly  Rutabagas  Bread 

Banana  Salad 
Frozen  Pudding  Coffee 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
PAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Chicken 

2j  lb 

6  Co 

I2A2 

Rutabagas      .... 
Bread  . 

if  lb. 
Soz 

44 

C.2 

is 

16 

244 
3O2 

Milk     

\JtJ. 
12  OZ. 

o^ 
4"> 

121 

o^* 

63 

Eggs  (2) 

<  oz. 

74 

117 

Sugar  

IO  OZ. 

H37 

Oranges     

8  oz. 

7 

10? 

Cream  

8  oz. 

23 

373 

4* 

Potato       

2  lb. 

80 

8 

6<tf 

Bananas    

1  lb. 

18 

18 

286 

Salad    

1  R. 

76 

232 

72 

Walnuts    

I  OZ. 

18 

1  60 

18 

Butter  

4.  OZ 

4" 

8^8 

Flour    

I  OZ. 

13 

3 

8c 

Cream  

2  OZ 

6 

O3 

IO 

Coffee  

I   OZ 

Telly 

8  oz 

IO 

7O2 

Total.     .     .     . 

1080 

3260 

3736 

Per  person:  180  Cal.  Protein;  1166  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 
Cost,  $1.00. 


PLANNING  OF   MEALS 


SUPPER   OR   LUNCH 

Potato  Soup  and  Croutons 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Potato  

i  lb. 

40 

4 

328 

Milk     

2  lb. 

1  2O 

324 

182 

Butter  

I  OZ. 

I 

214 

Flour    

i   OZ. 

6 

I 

43 

Salt      .               ... 

Bread 

2  OZ. 

21 

7 

121 

Total       .     .     . 

~i88 

550 

664 

i  amount  or   i  pint  of  potato  soup  would  furnish  all  nutrition 
needed  for  a  supper  or  lunch  for  one  person,  or 
94  Cal.  Protein;  607  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

MENU 
BREAKFAST 

Baked  Apples 

Shredded  Wheat  Biscuit          Boiled  Eggs 
Toast  Cocoa 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Apoles  . 

2  lb 

14. 

AO 

A72 

Shredded  wheat  biscuit  . 
6  Eggs 

6  OZ. 
II   OZ 

72 
164 

21 
2  CO 

519 

Bread  

i  lb 

16? 

*y 

cU 

066 

Cream  

i  lb 

II 

oo 

187 

2O 

Milk     

il  lb 

nc 

2O2 

114. 

Butter  

2  OZ 

/  j 
2 

A2O 

Sugar   

12"  OZ 

T*y 

160 

Cocoa  

I   OZ. 

25 

73 

43 

Total     .     .     . 

530 

1255 

2303 

Per  person :  88  Cal.  Protein ;  593  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

Cost,  $.40. 


88 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


MENU 
DINNER 

Roast  Beef  Mashed  Potatoes 

Canned  Peas 

Bananas  rolled  in  Nuts 

Lemon  Pie  Coffee 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Beef      

2i  lb. 

6n 

2IA.O 

Potato        

2  lb. 

80 

8 

6=56 

Peas      

I  lb. 

6c 

8 

178 

Bananas    

i£  lb 

75 

36 

C'J-l 

Nuts     .... 

4OZ 

CTQ 

180 

*6 

Pie  filling        .... 
Crust    .     .     . 

i  R. 
\  R 

54 

•7  IT 

192 
18  s 

855 
228 

Bread    . 

6  oz 

OO 
6? 

20 

^62 

Butter  . 

3  OZ 

**o 

•J 

6<id. 

Salad  dressing      .     .     . 
Milk 

JR. 

8  oz 

0 

37 

•7Q 

233 
81 

73 
46 

Sugar    . 

I  OZ 

J** 

iid. 

•    «    •    . 

Total  .... 

1095 

3927 

3141 

For  six  people  :  1095  Cal.  Protein. 

7068  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

For  one  person :    183  Cal.  Protein. 

1178  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

Cost,  $.87i 
Dinner  to  be  served  at  12.00.     Start  preparation  at  10.30  A.M. 


PLANNING  OF   MEALS 


89 


MENU 
SUPPER 

Pork  Chops  Baked  Potatoes 

Bread 

Sliced  Fruit  Sponge  Cake 

Tea 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Pork     

i  lb. 

282 

<;86 

Potatoes   

i  lb 

AQ 

^28 

Cake    

i  R 

AQ 

•2Q 

e^i 

Bread  

12  OZ 

I2Z 

•7Q 

72C 

Butter 

2  OZ 

2 

428 

Oranges 

i  lb 

8 

incr 

Bananas 

2    *'-'• 

4  lb 

12 

12 

*W3 

IOI 

Sugar  

2    itj" 
2   OZ. 

iyi 

228 

.... 

•  •  .  • 

Total       .     .     . 

536 

II5I 

2370 

For  six  people :     536  Cal.  Protein. 

3521  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

For  one  person :     89 J  Cal.  Protein. 

587  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


MENU 
BREAKFAST 

Oranges  Oatmeal  and  Cream 

Bacon  and  Eggs 
Toast  Coffee 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 

COST 

HYDRATE 

Oranges      .     .     . 

2lb. 

28 

16 

422 

.12* 

Oatmeal     .     .     . 

6  oz. 

116 

III 

451 

.02 

Eggs      .... 

12  OZ. 

179 

282 

.... 

•15 

Toast    .... 

12  OZ. 

125 

40 

725 

•05 

Coffee   . 

.02 

Sugar    .... 

3  oz. 





342 

.01 

Cream  .... 

4  oz. 

12 

I87 

21 

.03! 

Milk      .... 

4  oz. 

IS 

41 

23 

.Ol| 

Butter  .... 

I  OZ. 

I 

215 

.... 

.02| 

Bacon    .... 

4  oz. 

42 

628 

.... 

.06 

Total  .     . 

518 

1520 

1984 

$.51 

For  six  people:  518  Cal.  Protein;  3504  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 
For  one  person :   86  Cal.  Protein ;  584  Cal.  Fat  and  carbohydrate. 


PLANNING   OF   MEALS 


MENU 
DINNER 

Chicken  Pie  Mashed  Potatoes 

String  Beans  Juno  Salad 

Custard 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Chicken 

2^  Ib 

623 

124.3 

Potatoes    .     .     .     . 

2  Ib. 

80 

8 

656 

Beans   

I  Ib. 

4.2 

12 

H1? 

B.  P.  biscuit    .... 
Flour    

|R. 
I  OZ. 

80 
I? 

33« 

•2 

513 

8< 

Butter  

2  OZ. 

2 

428 

Suear    . 

2  OZ 

228 

Custard 

i|  R 

60 

^68 

1  1  60 

Salad         .     . 

i  R 

i8c 

IO72 

128 

Cream 

2  OZ 

4.7 

5' 

Bread 

6  oz 

61 

22 

•762 

Telly 

lib. 

vo 

2 

176 

Coffee  

ii  oz. 



Total       .     .     . 

1163 

3541 

3562 

For  six  people :  1163  Cal.  Protein;  7103  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 
For  one  person :  194  Cal. Protein;  1184  Cal. Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 
Cost,  $1.00. 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


MENU 
SUPPER 

Deviled  Eggs  Scalloped  Potatoes 

Bread 
Sliced  Oranges  and  Bananas  Cake 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Oranges     

i  lb. 

I< 

8 

211 

Bananas          .... 

i  lb. 

6 

6 

0"> 

E22S 

i  lb. 

2^8 

376 

Potatoes    

2  lb. 

60 

6 

492 

Butter  

2\  OZ. 

3 

536 

Milk     

8  oz. 

30 

8l 

45 

Bread   

6  oz. 

63 

2O 

363 

Flour         

^  oz. 

6 

2 

85 

Suorar 

2   OZ. 

227 

Cake     

fR- 

78 

391 

634 

Total     .     .     . 

505 

1426 

2152 

Per  person :  83  Cal.  Protein ;  596  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


93 


MENU 
BREAKFAST 

Oranges 

Oatmeal  and  Cream 

Creamed  Dried  Beef  Popovers 

Toast  Coffee 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Popovers  

i  R. 

I  <2 

176 

<O2 

White  sauce  .... 
Oatmeal    

i  R. 
lib 

60 
76 

445 

153 
3OI 

Bread  

5  oz 

£2 

16 

3O2 

Oranges     

i^  lb 

22 

12 

316 

Butter 

2  OZ 

2 

A.2Q 

Cream  

^  lb. 

21 

777 

4.1 

Sugar    

2^  OZ. 

311 

Beef 

<  OZ 

I  ZO 

8? 

Coffee  

I  OZ. 

*3*+ 

*  *  *  * 

Total  .... 

537 

1612 

1926 

Per  person :  89 J  Cal.  Protein ;   589^  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 
Cost,  $.50. 


94 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


MENU 
DINNER 

Roast  Pork  Mashed  Potatoes  and  Gravy 

Creamed  Carrots  Cabbage  Salad 

Apple  Pie 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Potatoes         .... 

2  lb. 

80 

8 

656 

Pork                .... 

2\  lb 

7(X 

146  r 

Carrots 

ii  lb 

2o 

2A. 

2QA 

Cabbage 

i  lb 

2Q 

12 

IO2 

Apples        
Milk     

2lb. 

2  OZ. 

*v 

H 

8 

40 
2O 

474 
ii 

Butter  

3  OZ. 

? 

64.1? 

Bread   .                ... 

6  oz 

6* 

2O 

AfC 

Pie  crust    .           ... 

i  R. 

60 

77O 

*62 

White  sauce    .... 
Salad  dressing 
Sucar 

i  R. 
i  R. 

6  oz 

37 
73 

405 
465 

89 

145 

682 

* 

Total       .     .     . 

1  1  10 

3874 

3230 

For  six  people:    mo  Cal.  Protein. 

7104  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

For  one  person :    184  Cal.  Protein. 

1184  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate 
Cost,  $.95. 


PLANNING  OF   MEALS 


95 


MENU 
SUPPER 

Cheese  Souffle  Riced  Potato 

Bread 
Canned  Peaches  Spanish  Buns 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Buns 

1  R 

01 

4.24. 

002 

Potato  

i^  lb. 

4-0 

6 

4OO 

Milk     
Butter 

ilb. 

2  OZ 

30 
2 

81 
428 

45 

Cheese 

1  lb 

118 

24.0 

II 

Canned  peaches  . 
Bread  

ilb. 
6  oz. 

13 
63 

4 
20 

197 
363 

Eggs 

o  oz. 

134 

211 

Tea       

Total     .     .     . 

500 

15*4 

2008 

Per  person :  83  Cal.  Protein ;  587  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 


PLANNING  OF  MEALS 


MENU 
BREAKFAST 

Stewed  Prunes 

Toasted  Corn  Flakes  Hash 

Muffins  Coffee 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Prunes 

£  lb 

13 

A  A  A 

Corn  flakes     .... 
Cream  

3  oz. 

4  OZ. 

35 
ii 

14 
187 

263 
2O 

Sugar   

if  oz. 

1  08 

Beef 

*  lb 

172 

2  eg 

Potatoes    

2    *'-'• 

I  lb. 

•*•  10 

2C 

<*$o 

4" 

287 

Butter  

2  OZ. 

2 

420 

Muffins      

i  R. 

2O1? 

37S 

O80 

Milk     

4  oz. 

15 

41 

23 

Total.     .     .     . 

489 

1308 

2224 

Per  person :  82  Cal.  Protein ;  589  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 
Cost,  $.38. 


PLANNING  OF   MEALS 


97 


MENU 
DINNER 

Roast  Pork  Gravy 

Mashed  Potatoes  Creamed  Carrots 

Bread 
Maple  Bavarian  Cream 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Pork      

2  lb. 

c64 

1172 

Potatoes    

ii  lb. 

80 

8 

6<;6 

Carrots      

ii  lb 

2Q 

24. 

2C4, 

White  sauce    .... 
Bread 

iiR. 

i  lb 

56 

SA 

446 

27 

134 

4.O3 

Butter 

•3     f)Z 

•2 

f\A  A 

T**O 

Bavarian  cream  . 
Flour    

i  R. 

I  OZ 

J 
119 
13 

780 

•2 

1047 

8c 

Milk     

4OZ 

I  cr 

4.1 

23 

Cream 

2  OZ 

6 

O4. 

II 

Sugar    . 

I   OZ 

VT- 

1  14. 

*     *     "     " 

.... 

j.  j.^. 

Total        .     .     . 

969 

3239 

2807 

For  six  people :       969  Cal.  Protein. 

6046  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

For  one  person:    i6ii  Cal.  Protein. 

1008  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 


CONLEY,  N.  &  D. 7 


98 


PLANNING   OF  MEALS 


MENU 
SUPPER 

Cold  Roast  Pork 
Scalloped  Potatoes  Asparagus  Salad 

Bread 
Orange  Cake  Peach  Sauce 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Pork     

i?  lb. 

423 

870 

Potatoes    

I  lb. 

4.O 

A 

328 

Bread   

12  OZ. 

I2< 

4O 

72< 

White  sauce    .... 
Butter  .     .           ... 

i  R. 

2  OZ. 

37 

2 

297 

420 

89 

Asparagus       .... 
Olive  oil    .           ... 

lib. 

2  OZ 

17 

4 
7<%7 

30 

Cake                    .     . 

i  R 

47 

14.  -2 

4O4 

Peaches 

i  lb. 

13 

107 

Sucar 

2  OZ. 

228 

•  .  •  • 

.  •  •  • 

Total       .     .     . 

700 

2557 

2001 

For  six  people :    700  Cal.  Protein. 

4558  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 

For  one  person:  117  Cal.  Protein. 

759  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 


PLANNING   OF   MEALS 


99 


FOODS  AS  PURCHASED 
Calories  per  Pound 


NAME  OF  FOOD 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

MINERAL 
MAIIER 

% 

CELLU- 
LOSE 

EGGS: 
Eggs,  as  purchased    .     . 
White,  egg  

238 
244. 

376 

8 

•9 
.6 

Yolk,  ece    . 

286 

134^ 

i.i 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  : 
Milk 

60 

162 

OI 

7 

Cream  

46 

747 

82 

.5 

American  Cheese 
Neufchatel  Cheese     .     . 
Butter  

471 
340 

18 

1361 
IIO7 

3434 

44 
27 

3-8 
2.4 
?, 

MEAT: 
Beef,  round     .... 
Beef  rib 

346 
otr-2 

517 
8<?7 

i. 

cr 

.  . 

Beef,  loin   
Lamb,  shoulder    . 
Lamb,  leg  

•*DO 
294 
262 
289 

W0/ 

707 

953 
^4.0 

.... 

O 
I. 

.8 
i. 

Mutton,  shoulder       .     . 
Mutton,  loin   .... 
Mutton,  leg     .... 
Pork,  loin,  lean     . 
Pork,  loin,  fat       ... 
Pork,  salt,  fat       ... 
Pork,  salt,  lean     .     .     . 
Sausaee 

322 
246 

275 
282 
244 
35 
134 

2^6 

803 
H43 
594 
586 
978 
3482 
2407 

I78< 

.... 

.6 

•7 
.8 
.8 
.8 
5- 

5- 

6 

Ham 

2^0 

1  34.O 

cr 

Bacon    

•^ov 
166 

*o*ty 

2^13 

O' 

Dried  Beef       .... 
Chicken      

480 
260 

279 
407 

9- 

7 

FISH,  FRESH: 
Pickerel            .     . 

180 

8 

6 

Salmon 

278 

360 

8 

Trout     . 

1  66 

jvw 

2o6 

6 

100 


PLANNING  OF   MEALS 
FOODS  AS  PURCHASED  —  Continued 


NAME  OP  FOOD 


CALORIES 
PROTEIN 


CALORIES 
FAT 


CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATES 


MINERAL 
MATTER 


CELLU- 
LOSE 


FISH,  SALTED  : 
Codfish,  salted 

FATS: 

Lard      .     .     . 
Olive  Oil 


462 


12 


4040 
4040 


23-5 


SUGARS : 

Granulated  Sugar 
Maple  Sirup    . 


1820 
1300 


FOOD  AS  PREPARED 
Calories  per  Recipe 


NAME  OF  FOOD 


CALORIES 
PROTEIN 


CALORIES 

FAT 


CALORIES 
CARBOHYDRATES 


Biscuit 131 

Nut  Bread 283 

Popovers 152 

Waffles 204 

Muffins 189 

Rolls 290 

Doughnuts 342 

Cake,  plain 173 

Cake,  chocolate 208 

Pie  Crust 69 

Chocolate  Pie  Filling     ...  164 

Lemon  Pie  Filling     ....  54 

Beef  Loaf 738 

Salad  Dressing 73 

White  Sauce 37 

Tomato  Sauce 41 

Potato  Soup 167 


454 
430 
176 
402 
612 

345 
427 

572 
1046 
770 
426 
192 
1952 
465 
297 
441 
543 


854 

2147 

502 

843 
844 
1809 
2663 
1616 
1692 

455 

682 

855 
60 

145 

89 

186 

543 


PLANNING  OF   MEALS 

FOODS  AS  PREPARED  FOR  COOKING 
Calories  per  Pound 


,101 

',  >  .' ' 


NAME  OF  FOOD 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

MINERAL 
MATTER 
% 

CELLU- 
LOSE 
% 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS  : 

Potatoes 

4O 

328 

I. 

4_ 

H\j 

o^u 

•4- 

Sweet  Potatoes     .     .     . 

33 

28 

476 

I.I 

i-3 

Beets               .... 

2Q 

4 

177 

I.I 

.0 

Carrots            .... 

•y 

20 

16 

•*•  /  i 

168 

I. 

•y 
I.I 

Onions 

20 

12 

16? 

.6 

.8 

Parsnips 

*y 

20 

2O 

***j 

200 

1.4 

2  <? 

•y 

*  "T- 

*«j 

Rutabagas  

24 

8 

133 

I.I 

1.2 

CEREALS  : 

T^ 

OO 

Flour,  patent  .... 

207 

40 

1366 

•3 

.1 

Bread    

l67 

C2 

066 

i. 

.2 

Rice      

/ 

14.6 

oo 

12 

V/V7V 
1438 

.4 

Oatmeal          .... 

J-iTvy 

•2  Q4 

2Q4 

•••T-  Ow 
I  2O^ 

•T- 
1.0 

.Q 

Cream  of  Wheat  . 

O^T- 

2  2O 

•^VH- 

73 

J.  ^w  J 
1369 

•*•  y 
i-3 

y 

Wheat  Bk.  Food  .     .     . 

185 

72 

1349 

i-5 

1.8 

Corn  Meal       .... 

l67 

77 

1372 

i. 

i.i 

Shredded  Wheat  Biscuit 

193 

57 

1383 

2.1 

i-7 

Corn  Flakes,  toasted 

184 

73 

1405 

•7 

•4 

Macaroni    

244 

36 

I^^O 

1.2 

Corn  Starch     .... 

*t*9 

ow 

*O*rV 

l638 

x  o 

LEGUMES  : 

Lima  Beans     .... 

329 

61 

1199 

4.1 

4- 

Navy  Beans    .... 

410 

73 

1085 

3-5 

.  4-4 

Peas,  green,  shelled]  .     . 

127 

20 

308 

i. 

1.2 

Peas,  canned   .... 

66 

8 

I78 

i.i 

1.2 

Beans,  string,  fresh   .     . 

42 

12 

135 

.8 

1.9 

Beans,  string,  canned     . 

20 

4 

69 

•9 

PLANNING   OF   MEALS 


FOODS  AS  PREPARED  FOR  COOKING  —  Continued 


NAME  OF  FOOD 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES 
FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

MINERAL 
MATTER 
% 

CELLU- 
LOSE 
% 

GREEN  VEGETABLES  : 
Asparagus  

•22 

8 

60 

.7 

8 

Cauliflower      .... 
Celery              .... 

33 
20 

2O 

86 
60 

•7 
i. 

i. 

Cabbage 

20 

12 

IO2 

i 

Corn,  green     .... 
Corn,  canned  .... 
Cucumber 

56 
5i 

T  r 

44 
48 
8 

359 
346 

r6 

•7 
•9 

r 

•5 

7 

Lettuce 

X0 

22 

12 

^3 

O 

Q 

•/ 

7 

Squash 

26 

2O 

l64 

8 

•/ 

8 

Spinach      
Tomatoes   

38 

16 

12 

16 

58 
7O 

2.1 
.C 

•9 
.6 

Pickles  

12 

40 

FRUITS  : 
Apples 

7 

2O 

236 

.2 

1.2 

Oranges      
Peaches      
Pineapple   

15 

13 

7 

8 
4 

12 

211 
171 
177 

•5 
•4 

.7 

3-6 
•4 

Strawberries    .... 
Lemons      

18 
18 

24 
28 

135 
I  ^4 

.6 

.c 

1.4 
I.I 

Bananas     

24. 

24 

382 

.8 

I. 

Grapes        ..'... 

18 

48 

262 

4. 

DRIED  FRUITS  : 
Dates 

& 

113 

I  ^01 

1.3 

Fics 

78 

12 

13  ^O 

2  4 

6.2 

Raisins 

4.7 

133 

138=; 

3.4 

2.C 

Apricots 

86 

4O 

1138 

2.4. 

Prunes  

38 

1334 

2.3 

2.1 

Chocolate        .... 

234. 

1067 

CCl 

.7 

Cocoa         

303 

1168 

686 

7.2 

NUTS: 
Walnuts     .'.... 

3O2 

2^61 

203 

1.4 

2.6 

Peanuts      

47O 

I  trco 

444 

2. 

2.5 

PART  II 

CHAPTER  I 
CLASSIFICATION   OF   FOODS   FOR   DETAILED    STUDY 

Value  of  Dietary  Studies.  —  The  relative  importance  of 
the  different  foods  used  in  the  country  may  be  estimated 
from  crop  statistics  showing  the  amount  of  the  various 
foods  produced  and  consumed  by  the  American  people. 

A  better  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  various  foods  in 
the  American  diet  can  be  obtained  from  an  analysis  of  the 
dietary  studies  conducted  by  Dr.  Langworthy,  in  charge 
of  the  nutritive  investigations  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

Over  four  hundred  of  these  studies  were  made,  showing 
food  consumed  by  normal  people,  in  good  health,  in  the 
average  American  home,  and  by  people  engaged  in  diversi- 
fied industries. 

These  studies  are  of  great  value  for  several  reasons. 
They  show  the  habits  and  customs  of  people  of  different 
nationalities,  occupations,  and  conditions ;  their  peculiar 
tastes,  and  the  prevalence  of  any  class  of  foods  in  their 
diet.  They  furnish  valuable  data  for  investigation  as  to 
the  high  cost  of  living,  whether  it  is  due  to  the  use  of  those 
foods  where  consumption  is  overtaking  production,  where 
the  cost  of  production  and  distribution  is  necessarily  high, 
or  whether  it  is  due  to  the  neglect  or  avoidance  of  foods 

103 


104  FOODS  FOR  DETAILED   STUDY 

that  are  wholesome  and  nutritious,  and  can  be  obtained  at 
a  low  cost. 

The  studies  show  why  certain  defects  or  faults  of  nutri- 
tion can  occur  in  families  or  in  classes  of  people.  An  ex- 
ample of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  tendency  to  use  foods 
from  which  much  of  the  mineral  matter  has  been  removed 
in  milling,  as  in  patent  flours,  or  from  which  mineral  salts 
have  been  lost  by  improper  cooking.  All  members  of  the 
family,  or  group  of  families,  may  suffer  from  malnutrition,  and 
the  reason  usually  given  is  that  the  weakness  or  tendency 
is  inherited,  and  no  effort  is  made  to  locate  the  cause.  Often 
the  weakness  is  due  to  a  lack  of  the  mineral  salts  needed 
by  the  body,  and  could  be  remedied  by  a  study  of  what 
nutritive  ingredients  are  furnished  by  the  different  foods. 

The  following  figures,  obtained  from  the  dietary  studies 
above  referred  to,  show  the  relative  importance  of  the 
common  foods. 

Wheat  furnishes  18.6  per  cent  of  the  food  consumed  in 
the  average  American  home,  milk  16.5  per  cent,  potatoes 
12.5  per  cent,  corn  8.9  per  cent,  beef  7.2  per  cent,  pork 
7.2  per  cent,  sugar  5.4  per  cent,  eggs  2.1  per  cent,  fish  1.8 
per  cent,  butter  1.6  per  cent,  rye  1.3  per  cent,  cheese  .3 
per  cent. 

After  a  detailed  study  of  the  important  foods  is  made,  it 
can  be  ascertained  whether  any  improvement  can  be 
made  in  the  diet  as  regards  nutritive  value,  greater  variety, 
and  a  lessening  of  cost.  The  figures  show,  at  any  rate, 
that  certain  foods  have  not  the  place  in  the  diet  which  they 
deserve,  as,  for  example,  so  wholesome,  cheap,  and  nutri- 
tious a  food  as  cheese  furnishes  but  .3  per  cent  of  the  aver- 
age diet,  and  green  vegetables  and  succulent  roots  and 
tubers  furnish  but  6j  per  cent. 


FOODS   FOR  DETAILED   STUDY  105 

The  Object  of  Food  Study  is  to  learn  the  nutritive  value 
of  each  food  to  the  human  body  and  its  place  in  the  diet, 
so  that  when  a  food  is  made  part  of  a  meal,  it  shall  serve 
some  definite  purpose. 

Foods  differ  widely.  They  differ  in  structure,  composi- 
tion, appearance,  nutritive  value,  digestibility,  cost,  and 
in  the  effect  of  heat  upon  them.  But  many  foods  are 
similar  in  structure,  composition,  and  food  value,  and  they 
may  be  studied  in  groups.  If  the  typical  food  of  each  group 
is  studied  in  detail,  the  others  may  be  compared  and  con- 
trasted with  it,  until  the  exact  place  of  each  food  is  known. 

For  the  purpose  of  detailed  study,  foods  are  classified 
as  animal  foods  and  vegetable  foods,  according  to  the 
sources  from  which  they  are  derived.  Animal  foods  are 
chiefly  protein ;  they  contain  considerable  fat  and  little  or 
no  carbohydrate.  Vegetable  foods  are  chiefly  carbohy- 
drate. They  contain,  with  few  exceptions,  very  little  fat. 
Some,  as  the  legumes  and  cereals,  contain  considerable 
protein.  Generally  speaking,  however,  animal  foods  are 
depended  upon  to  supply  protein  and  fat,  and  vegetable 
foods  to  supply  carbohydrate,  mineral  matter,  and  some- 
times protein. 

Most  of  the  fat  supplied  in  the  diet  is  added  to  it,  not 
in  its  natural  form  in  the  food  in  which  it  occurs,  but  as  a 
derived  product,  as  butter,  cheese,  lard,  olive  oil. 

From  recent  dietary  studies  it  has  been  found  that 
animal  foods  furnish  38.5  per  cent  of  the  total  food  material, 
47.5  per  cent  of  the  protein,  88.5  per  cent  of  the  fat,  4  per 
cent  of  the  carbohydrate,  in  the  average  American  diet. 
Vegetable  foods  furnish  61.5  per  cent  of  the  total  food  ma- 
terial, 52.5  per  cent  of  the  protein,  11.5  per  cent  of  the  fat, 
96  per  cent  of  the  carbohydrate. 


io6  FOODS   FOR  DETAILED   STUDY 

Foods  are  Classified  as  — 

A .  Animal  Foods,  - 

1.  Meats,  which  include  poultry  and  game. 

2.  Fish,  which  include  shellfish. 

3.  Animal  Products,  which  include  milk,  butter,  cheese, 

and  eggs. 

B.  Vegetable  Foods,  — 

1.  Cereals. 

2.  Legumes. 

3.  Roots  and  Tubers. 

4.  Green  Vegetables. 

5.  Fruits. 

Vegetable  Foods.  —  Because  vegetable  foods  furnish  the 
larger  part  of  the  average  diet  and  because  they  seem 
simpler  to  study,  they  are  considered  first  in  the  detailed 
study  of  foods. 

All  vegetables  have  two  things  in  common.  They  all 
contain  valuable  mineral  salts  or  acids,  and  carbohydrate 
in  the  form  of  starch,  sugar,  or  cellulose. 

Roots  and  tubers  are  pure  carbohydrate  foods,  contain- 
ing little  or  no  available  protein. 

Cereals  contain  protein  and  carbohydrate  in  the  pro- 
portion of  about  1:7. 

Legumes  contain  protein  and  carbohydrate  in  the  pro- 
portion of  about  i :  i\. 

Green  vegetables  are  principally  valuable  for  their 
mineral  salts  and  cellulose,  fruits  for  their  acids  and  sugar. 

The  rank  and  importance  of  the  different  vegetable  foods, 
according  to  use,  may  be  judged  from  the  following  table, 
taken  from  "  Food  Customs  and  Diet  in  American  Homes, " 
a  government  bulletin  prepared  by  Dr.  Langworthy.  The 


FOODS  FOR  DETAILED  STUDY 


107 


table  shows  the  percentage  of  total  food  material  furnished 
by  the  different  foods,  and  the  percentage  of  protein,  fat, 
and  carbohydrate  furnished  by  each  food. 


FOOD 

TOTAL  FOOD 
MATERIAL  USED 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBOHYDRATE 

Cereals  
Potatoes  .... 
Other  vegetables  .  . 
Fruits 

Per  Cent 
3oi 

»i 

6 

A.1 

Per  Cent 
43 
4 
ii 

_! 

Per  Cent 
9 
J 

i 

i 

Per  Cent 
62 
8J 

2 

Legumes  .... 
Sugar  and  molasses  . 

ii 

si 

3* 

J 

2 

17* 

CHAPTER  II 
CEREALS 

THE  cereals  are  the  most  important  of  all  foods  because 
they  form  the  chief  food  of  all  peoples,  the  world  over, 
and  contain  the  proper  nutritive  ingredients  in  the  right 
proportion  to  sustain  life.  One  or  more  of  them  can  be 
easily  raised  on  nearly  every  soil.  They  form  the  cheap- 
est of  all  foods,  even  in  localities  remote  from  their  place 
of  production,  and  they  can  be  prepared  for  the  table  in 
many  ways.  They  are  almost  the  only  food  that  can  be 
eaten  from  day  to  day  without  palling  the  appetite. 

Some  idea  of  their  importance  can  be  gained  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  estimated  that  they  furnish  30.6  per  cent  of 
all  food  consumed  by  the  American  people,  43  per  cent  or 
nearly  one  half  of  all  the  protein,  9.1  per  cent  of  all  fat, 
61.8  per  cent  of  all  carbohydrate. 

Wheat,  alone,  furnishes  18.6  per  cent  of  the  total  Ameri- 
can food  material,  corn  8.9  per  cent,  rye  1.3  per  cent,  oats 
.5  per  cent,  rice  .3  per  cent,  buckwheat  and  barley  .1  per 
cent. 

From  the  above  figures  it  will  be  seen  that  wheat  and  corn 
are  the  only  cereals  that  form  an  appreciable  part  of  the 
American  diet,  and  that  merit  an  extensive  study.  Their 
value  and  importance  are  due  to  the  fact  that  they  can  be 
manufactured  into  a  great  variety  of  products,  as  flour, 
meal,  breakfast  foods,  starch,  glucose  or  corn  sirup,  and 

108 


CEREALS 


109 


thus  enter  into  the  composition  of  many  articles  of 
food. 

The  reason  wheat  ranks  first  in  importance  among  all 
foods  is  because  of  the  character  of  its  protein.  The  prin- 
cipal protein  in  wheat,  commonly  called  gluten,  which  is 
composed  of  two  substances,  gliadin  and  glutenin,  gives 
to  the  wheat  flour  its  peculiar  elastic,  tenacious  property 
which  makes  it  possible  to  bake  it  into  a  light  porous 
loaf.  The  proteins  in  no  other  cereal  except  rye  possess 
this  property. 

In  structure  the  cereals  are  similar.  They  consist  of 
three  parts,  the  skin,  including  the  bran  coats,  the  endo- 
sperm or  body  of  the  grain,  the  germ.  They  vary  some- 
what in  composition,  the  greatest  variation  being  in  the 
amount  of  fat,  mineral  matter,  cellulose,  and  character  of 
the  protein. 

The  following  tables  show  the  composition  of  the  various 
cereals  as  purchased,  and  their  relative  richness  in  each  of 
the  food  principles,  though  these  figures  are  modified  by 
milling  processes  :  — 

ATWATER'S  TABLE  OF  COMPOSITION 


CEREAL 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBOHYDRATE 

CELLULOSE 

MINERAL 

MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Wheat   .     . 

IO.6 

12.2 

i-7 

71.3 

2.4 

1.8 

Corn      .     . 

10.8 

IO.O 

4-3 

71.7 

i-7 

1-5 

Oats       .     . 

II.O 

II.8 

5-o 

59-7 

9-5 

3-0 

Rye  .     .     . 

10.5 

12.2 

i-5 

71.8 

2.1 

1.9 

Rice  .     .     . 

I2.O 

8.0 

2.O 

76.0 

I.O 

I.O 

Barley   .     . 

IO-9 

II.O 

2-3 

69-5 

3-8 

2-5 

Buckwheat 

12.6 

IO.O 

2.2 

64-5 

8.7 

2.0 

no 


CEREALS 


TABLE  SHOWING  RELATIVE  RICHNESS  OF  CEREALS  IN  THE 
DIFFERENT  INGREDIENTS 


PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBOHYDRATE 

CELLULOSE 

.MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Wheat 

12.2 

Oats 

5-0 

Rice 

76.0 

Oats 

9-5 

Oats 

3-o 

Rye 

12.2 

Corn 

4-3 

Rye 

71.8 

Buck- 

Barley 

2-5 

Oats 

II.8 

Barley 

2-3 

Corn 

71.7 

wheat 

8.7 

Buck- 

Barley 

II.  0 

Buck- 

Wheat 

71-3 

Barley 

3-8 

wheat 

2.O 

Corn 

IO.O 

wheat 

2.2 

Barley 

69-5 

Wheat 

2.4 

Rye 

1.9 

Buck- 

Rice 

2.O 

Buck- 

Rye 

2.1 

Wheat 

1.8 

wheat 

IO.O 

Wheat 

1-7 

wheat 

64-5 

Corn 

i-7 

Corn 

1.5 

Rice 

8.0 

Rye 

i-5 

Oats 

59-7 

Rice 

I.O 

Rice 

I.O 

Detailed  Study  of  Wheat.  —  A  detailed  study  will  be 
made  of  the  wheat  grain,  because  of  its  rank  in  importance 
as  a  food,  and  because  its  structure  furnishes  an  interesting 
study  of -the  processes  necessary  to  prepare  a  cereal  for 
market  and  consumption.  A  knowledge  of  its  structure 
also  enables  us  to  see  what  principles  of  cooking  must  be 
applied  to  the  cereals,  and  what  changes  take  place  during 
cooking.  No  better  specimen  of  a  vegetable  cell  can  be 
found  from  which  to  study  the  structure,  the  occurrence 
of  the  different  nutrients,  the  form  of  protein  needed  for 
plant  development,  and  the  changes  which  take  place 
during  germination.  The  exhaustive  studies  which  have 
been  made  of  the  wheat  cell  add  greatly  to  our  understand- 
ing of  the  structure  of  any  cell. 

The  Structure  and  Composition.  —  The  wheat  grain  or 
seed,  like  all  other  substances,  is  made  up  of  innumerable 
cells,  alike  in  structure,  but  differing  widely  in  composi- 
tion in  different  parts  of  the  seed.  The  grain  may  be 


CEREALS 


in 


said  to  consist  of  three  parts.  At  the  lower  end  of  the 
seed  is  found  the  germ  or  embryo  which  contains  the  life 
principle  that  will  develop  into  a  wheat  plant.  This  em- 
bryo is  made  up  of  multitudinous  cells  containing  propor- 
tionately more  fat,  protein,  and  mineral  matter  than  the 
other  parts  of  the  seed.  It  is  35  per  cent  protein,  13  per 
cent  fat,  35  per  cent  carbohydrate,  and  5!  per  cent  mineral 
matter.  When  the  germ  begins  to  develop,  the  ferment 
diastase  changes  the  insoluble  starch 
to  soluble  maltose,  and  the  plant 
feeds  on  the  fat,  protein,  changed 
starch,  and  mineral  matter  in  the 
embryo  and  other  parts  of  the  seed. 


DIAGRAMMATIC  SECTION  OF 
A  GRAIN  OF  WHEAT. 

a,  skin  and  testa;  b,  membrane; 
c,  embryo;  d,  flour  cells; 
e,  cereal  or  aleurone  layer; 
/,  scutellum.  (From  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  No.  389,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.) 


t\ 


{Oil 


CELLULAR  STRUCTURE  OF  A  GRAIN  OF  WHEAT. 
(After  Winton  and  Moeller.) 

(From  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  389,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture.) 


Surrounding  the  embryo  is  a  deep  network  of  cells  which 
contain  more  nourishment  for  the  germ.  It  is  called  the 
endosperm  and  makes  up  85  per  cent  of  the  wheat  grain. 
These  cells  differ  from  the  cells  of  the  embryo  in  that  they 
contain  about  10  per  cent  protein,  75  per  cent  carbohy- 
drate, less  than  i  per  cent  each  of  fat  and  mineral  matter. 


112 


CEREALS 


The  outermost  layer  of  cells  comprising  the  endosperm  is 
called  the  cerealin  or  aleurone  layer,  and  differs  from  the 
rest  of  the  endosperm  in  that  it  is  richer  in  protein  and 
mineral  matter  than  the  rest. 

The  endosperm  is  surrounded  by  a  tough  covering  con- 
sisting of  five  layers  of  bran  coats,  which  protect  the  deli- 
cate parts  and  contain  the  coloring  matter  of  the  wheat. 
It  is  difficult  to  separate  the  aleurone  cells  from  the  bran 
coats  in  milling,  and  that  is  the  reason  why  so  much  is  lost. 
Bran  contains  about  16  percent  protein,  3.5  per  cent  fat, 
43.5  per  cent  starch  and  sugar,  18  per  cent  cellulose,  6 
per  cent  mineral  matter. 

A  Single  Cell.  --The  cells  in  the  wheat  grain  are  held 
together  by  an  intercellular  substance,  cellulose,  which 


DIAGRAM  OF  THE  PROTO- 
PLASMIC STRUCTURE  OF 
A  FLOUR  CELL. 

(From  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No. 
389,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.) 


DIAGRAM  OF  STARCH 
GRAINS  IN  A  FLOUR 
CELL. 

(From  Farmers'  Bulletin, 
No.  389,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.). 


varies  in  thickness  in  different  parts  of  the  seed.  The  cells 
vary  in  size,  shape,  and  composition,  but  all  have  certain 
structural  points  in  common.  A  single  cell  consists  of  a 
network  of  protoplasm,  or  protoplasmic  substance,  in  which 


CEREALS  113 

are  embedded  starch  grains,  some  fat,  and  mineral  matter. 
Near  the  center  is  the  cell  nucleus,  and  surrounding  the 
whole  cell  is  the  cell  wall  of  cellulose.  The  amount  of 
starch,  fat,  and  mineral  matter  varies  in  different  cells, 
as  does  the  amount  and  character  of  the  protein. 

The  protein  in  the  aleurone  layer  is  called  cerealin,  that 
in  the  endosperm  is  called  gluten,  and  is  composed  of  two 
proteins,  gliadin  and  glutenin.  Albumins,  globulins,  and 
compound  proteins  are  also  present  in  wheat.  The  com- 
pound proteins  contain  more  phosphorus,  iron,  and  other 
mineral  matter  than  the  simple  proteins,  and  they  are 
present  in  greatest  quantities  in  the  germ  and  bran  coats. 

The  proportion  of  gliadin  to  glutenin  in  the  gluten  is  said  to 
determine  the  bread-making  properties  of  the  flour.  Gluten 
consists  of  about  two  thirds  gliadin  to  one  third  glutenin. 
Snyder  describes  gliadin  as  the  material  which  binds  the 
flour  particles  together  to  form  a  dough,  giving  it  tenacity 
and  adhesiveness,  and  the  glutenin  as  the  material  to  which 
the  gliadin  adheres  and  which  prevents  it  from  becoming 
too  sticky  and  soft. 

Too  much  gliadin  makes  a  soft  and  sticky  flour,  while  too 
little  causes  the  flour  to  lack  expansive  power.  Hard 
wheat  contains  a  lower  percentage  of  gliadin  than  soft  or 
winter  wheat.  Its  gluten  is  of  a  stronger  and  more  tena- 
cious character.  It  will  hold  greater  quantities  of  water 
than  soft  wheat,  —  a  very  desirable  characteristic  in  bread 
making. 

Milling.  —  In  the  process  of  milling,  or  flour  making,  the 
germ  of  the  wheat  is  usually  removed  because  the  fat  in  it 
affects  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  flour  and  darkens  it. 
The  bran  coats  are  removed  because  they  contain  a  high 
percentage  of  cellulose  and  coloring  matter.  The  cellulose 

CONLEY,  N.  &  D.  —  8 


CEREALS 


is  said  to  make  the  bread  less  digestible,  and  people  demand 
a  white  loaf  of  bread,  even  if  it  is  not  so  nutritious  as  a 
darker  loaf. 

The  endosperm,  including  the  aleurone  cells,  is  ground 
into  flour  and  produces  the  various  grades  of  the  better 
flour  found  in  the  market.  Some  of  the  lower  grades  of 
flour  contain  the  germ,  some  contain  some  of  the  bran;  but 
the  proteins  in  them  do  not  make  so  light  and  porous  a 
loaf  of  bread  as  does  flour  made  from  the  endosperm,  which 
contains  so  much  gluten. 

Graham  flour  is  made  by  grinding  the  whole  of  the  wheat 
and  contains  the  nutritive  ingredients  in  exactly  the  same 
proportion  as  in  the  wheat  grain.  Entire  wheat  flour,  or 
whole  wheat  flour,  is  usually  made  by  removing  the  outer 
bran  coats  and  grinding  the  remainder. 

Variations  of  Flours.  —  From  the  accompanying  table 
it  will  be  seen  that  flour  made  from  the  endosperm  will 
contain  less  protein,  cellulose,  and  mineral  matter  than 
flour  made  from  the  whole  grain. 


PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBOHYDRATE 

CELLULOSE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Whole  grain  .  . 
Endosperm  .  .  . 
Germ  

Per  Cent 
II.  0 

10.5 
2r  7 

Per  Cent 
1.2 
.8 
13  I 

Per  Cent 
69.0 

74-3 
31  2 

Per  Cent 
2.6 

•7 
1.8 

Per  Cent 

i-7 

.  -7 

tr  7 

Bran  

16  4. 

?     IT 

AT.  6 

18  o 

60 

The  question,  as  to  whether  flour  made  from  the  endo- 
sperm is  as  nutritious  as  flour  made  from  whole  grain,  has 
probably  been  as  carefully  considered  and  as  thoroughly 
investigated  as  any  question  of  nutritive  values  of  the 
various  foods;  but  it  is  a  question  as  to  whether  mineral 


CEREALS  115 

matter,  as  found  in  wheat,  and  lost  in  milling,  is  more  val- 
uable to  the  human  body  than  10  calories  of  protein  per 
pound,  and  80  calories  of  carbohydrate. 

The  value  of  any  food  is  usually  estimated  by  the 
amount  of  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrate  which  it  contains ; 
by  the  ratio  of  the  proteins  to  the  fats  and  carbohydrates ; 
and  by  its  digestibility.  There  are  several  other  factors 
which  influence  the  estimate  of  the  nutritive  value  of  any 
food.  Formerly  it  was  held  that  an  ordinary  diet  would 
supply  all  the  mineral  matter  needed  by  the  individual. 
At  that  time,  refined  flour,  refined  meals,  bread  made  from 
these  products,  and  sugar  did  not  furnish  32.1  per  cent  of 
the  diet,  and  not  so  many  experiments  had  been  made 
on  animals  showing  the  effect  of  foods  lacking  in  mineral 
matter  on  the  tissues  of  the  body  and  on  general  health. 
There  is  no  question  that  people  who  live  on  foods  that  are 
lacking  in  mineral  matter  suffer  from  malnutrition  and 
that  physicians  have  to  try  to  make  up  this  loss,  by  pre- 
scribing the  elements  that  are  lacking,  in  an  inorganic 
form  —  a  form  that  the  human  body  cannot  so  well 
assimilate. 

People  engaged  in  sedentary  occupations  need  cellulose 
and  mineral  matter  to  help  move  the  food  along  the  intes- 
tine and  expel  it  from  the  body.  Constipation  is  a  com- 
mon trouble  and  much  medicine  is  consumed  to  remedy  it. 
In  fact,  fortunes  have  been  made  on  patent  pills  and  tablets, 
when  the  wasted  cellulose  in  foods  would  keep  the  slug- 
gish bowel  active.  The  accumulation  of  waste  matter 
in  the  large  intestine  leads  to  putrefactive  fermentation, 
and  the  poisons  and  gases  thus  formed  are  absorbed  and 
enter  the  blood,  lowering  the  vitality  and  resistant  power 
of  the  body.  An  abundance  of  cellulose  would  not  harm 


n6 


CEREALS 


the  average  individual,  but  would  greatly  benefit  him,  by 
aiding  the  body  to  rid  itself  of  waste  matter. 

The  question  remains,  what  conclusions  have  been 
reached  in  regard  to  the  digestibility  of  patent  and  whole 
wheat  flour  ?  Whole  wheat  and  Graham  flours  contain  the 
bran  and  cellulose  in  such  a  form  as  to  hasten  the  food  along 
the  intestine  so  rapidly  that  not  all  the  nutritive  ingre- 
dients are  absorbed,  but  some  are  lost  with  the  indigestible 
waste  matter.  How  much  is  lost,  and  will  that  loss  be 
equalized  by  the  gain  in  mineral  matter  and  the  benefits 
derived  from  a  diet  containing  cellulose  ? 

The  figures  given  are  all  taken  from  bulletins  showing  the 
results  of  Snyder's  investigations. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FLOURS 


KIND 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBOHYDRATE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Standard  patent   .... 
Entire  wheat    

Per  Cent 
II.Q9 
12.26 

Per  Cent 
I.6l 
2.24. 

Per  Cent 

75-36 
72.  c8 

Per  Cent 

•50 
I.  O2 

Graham  

12.  6< 

2  A.A. 

74.  58 

1.72 

Snyder's  experiments  show  that  the  proportion  of  the 
nutrients  digested  from  different  flours  were  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

Standard  patent  flour:  protein,  88.6  per  cent;  carbohy- 
drate, 97.7  per  cent. 

Entire  wheat  flour:  protein,  82.0  per  cent;  carbohydrate, 
93.5  per  cent. 

Graham  flour:  protein,  74.9  per  cent;  carbohydrate, 
89.2  per  cent. 


CEREALS 


117 


TOTAL  CALORIES  IN  FOOD 

CALORIES  DIGESTED 

Kind 

Calories 
Protein 

Calories 
Carbohydrate 

Calories 
Mineral 

Matter 

Calories 
Protein 

Calories 
Carbohydrate 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Standard  patent     . 
Entire  wheat      .     . 
Graham    .... 

223 
228 
235 

1402 
1368 
1387 

•50 
1.02 
1.72 

IQ7 
l87 
I76 

1369 
1289 
1237 

By  using  the  percentage  composition,  and  finding  the 
number  of  calories  of  energy  in  each  flour,  and  then  figur- 
ing the  amount  actually  digested,  it  is  found  that  there  is 
available  to  the  body  but  10  calories  less  protein  in  the 
entire  flour  than  in  the  patent  flour,  and  over  twice  as  much 
mineral  matter.  Five  tablespoons  of  milk  added  to  one 
pound  of  entire  wheat  flour,  in  breadmaking,  would  make 
the  amount  of  protein  equal  to  the  amount  in  bread  made 
from  patent  flour,  and,  in  addition,  there  would  remain  the 
valuable  mineral  matter  and  the  much  needed  cellulose. 
Skim  milk  could  be  used  in  place  of  the  whole  milk,  for  it 
furnishes  the  same  amount  of  protein. 

Figures  showing  the  comparative  amounts  of  iron,  cal- 
cium, and  phosphorus  in  different  flours,  grains,  and  bread. 


KIND 

CALCIUM 

PHOSPHORUS 

IRON 

Patent  flour  .... 
Entire  wheat  .... 
Bread,  white  .... 
Bread,  entire  .... 
Rye 

Per  Cent 
.025 
.061 
•03 
.04 
O7 

Per  Cent 

.20 
.902 
.20 

•4 
81 

Per  Cent 
.0015 
•0053 
.0009 
.0015 
OO4 

Rye  flour 

018 

80 

Corn  meal 

01  c; 

•2 

OOI  I 

Oatmeal  
Rice  

•13 

.12 

.872 

2O1 

.0036 

0009 

n8 


CEREALS 


It  may  seem  that  undue  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  importance 
of  mineral  matter  in  the  diet,  especially  in  connection  with 
this  subject;  but  because  cereals  furnish  30.6  per  cent  of 
the  total  food  material,  and  even  a  higher  percentage  among 
the  poorer  classes  where  the  meal  consists  mostly  of  bread ; 
because  this  book  is  written  for  girls  and  women  who  need 
to  know  the  demands  of  a  growing  and  maturing  body; 
because  girls  and  women  are  inclined  to  favor  foods  lack- 
ing in  mineral  salts, —  the  need  for  foods  as  nature  provided 
them  is  presented.  There  is  no  question  that  the  average 
girl  of  to-day  would  be  greatly  benefited  by  a  diet  rich  in 
iron,  calcium,  and  phosphorus,  and 
other  mineral  substances. 

Corn. — From  the  standpoint  of  the 
agriculturist,  no  other  vegetable  crop 
has  been  so  carefully  studied  as  corn, 
for  no  other  crop  ranks  with  it  in 
importance.  This  is  not  because  of 
its  importance  as  a  human  food,  but 
because  it  is  the  chief  food  of  farm 
animals;  and  any  improvement  in 
methods  of  raising  it  so  as  to  im- 
prove the  variety,  or  increase  the 
yield  per  acre,  means  greater  returns 
to  the  practical  farmer,  and  merits 
consideration. 

Corn  is  used  more  extensively  as 
a  food  in  the  southern  states  than  in  the  northern,  but 
dietary  studies  show  that  it  occupies  an  important  place 
in  all  diets,  furnishing  8.7  per  cent  of  the  total  food 
material  consumed. 

Corn  is  similar  in  structure  and  composition  to  wheat,  but 


DIAGRAMMATIC  SECTION  OF 
A  GRAIN  OF  CORN. 

a,  skin  and  testa;  b,  membrane; 
c,  embryo;  d,  endosperm; 
/,  scutellum.  (From  Farmers* 
Bulletin,  No.  389,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.) 


CEREALS  119 

it  differs  in  the  character  of  its  protein.  The  principal  pro- 
tein in  corn,  called  zein,  has  not  the  tenacious,  elastic  proper- 
ties that  gluten  has,  and  it  cannot  be  baked  into  a  light  and 
porous  loaf.  Corn  contains  less  protein,  mineral  matter, 
and  cellulose  than  wheat,  but  more  fat  and  carbohydrates. 

Like  the  wheat  kernel,  corn  consists  of  three  parts,  the 
skin,  endosperm,  and  germ.  The  skin,  which  is  chiefly 
cellulose  and  starch,  with  some  mineral  matter,  contains 
the  coloring  matter  of  the  corn.  The  outer  covering  may 
be  red,  yellow,  white,  or  blue,  but  the  body  of  the  kernel  is 
either  white  or  yellow.  The  endosperm  of  corn,  which  makes 
up  84  per  cent  of  the  grain,  contains  proportionally  less 
protein,  fat,  mineral  matter,  and  cellulose  than  the  whole 
kernel.  As  corn  contains  but  a  small  quantity  of  cellulose, 
compared  to  other  grains  (1.7  per  cent),  it  is  not  necessary 
to  remove  any  part  of  it  except  the  skin  or  outer  covering, 
and  products  made  from  the  whole  grain  supply  the  food 
requirements  of  the  body  much  better  than  products 
made  from  endosperm,  such  as  fine  meal,  flour,  and 
corn  starch. 

Corn  Products. —  Corn  is  manufactured  into  a  great  variety 
of  products  and  served  in  many  ways.  Green  corn,  or  corn 
on  the  cob,  is  a  universal  favorite  as  a  late  summer  vege- 
table, and  is  also  canned  for  winter  use.  Pop  corn,  so  called 
because  it  bursts  with  a  popping  sound  through  the  tough 
skin  which  incloses  it,  and  comes  out  white  and  crisp,  is 
sold  extensively  all  over  the  country.  It  is  said  that  the 
great  expansion  of  endosperm  in  pop  corn  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  skin  of  pop  corn  is  much  tougher  than  other 
varieties,  and  that  it  does  not  burst  until  the  pressure  due 
to  the  expansion  of  the  starch  and  water  turned  to  steam 
is  great  enough  to  force  it  open. 


120  CEREALS 

Hominy  was  formerly  the  whole  grain  of  the  corn,  and 
the  skin  was  removed  by  soaking  the  kernel  in  lye.  Hom- 
iny as  now  sold  is  freed  from  skin  and  germ  and  some- 
times crushed  into  small  pieces  or  flakes. 

Several  varieties  of  corn  meal  are  prepared.  Unbolted 
meal  from  the  whole  grain  has  the  same  composition  as  the 
whole  kernel.  The  fine  meal  and  corn  flour  are  made  from 
the  endosperm  after  the  skin  and  germ  are  removed,  and 
are  finely  ground.  Corn  starch  is  refined  so  that  it  con- 
tains nothing  but  starch.  The  breakfast  foods  prepared 
from  corn  will  be  referred  to  later.  Liquid  glucose  or  corn 
sirup  is  becoming  more  familiar  to  us  since  the  United 
States  Food  Laws  compel  manufacturers  to  retail  it  under 
its  right  name  and  to  sell  it  uncolored.  It  is  prepared 
by  hydrolyzing  corn  starch  by  boiling  it  with  a  dilute 
acid,  and  as  prepared  is  a  wholesome  product  and  is 
coming  into  use  more  extensively.  It  was  formerly 
added  to  maple  and  cane  sirup  as  an  adulterant  and 
colored  with  caramel.  It  is  about  three  fifths  as  sweet 
as  cane  sugar.  Cereal  coffee  and  many  liquors  are  also 
made  from  corn. 

Corn  prepared  as  corn  meal  and  flour  should  be  used 
extensively  in  the  diet  to  furnish  variety.  It  bakes  into  a 
granular  cake  and  can  be  added  to  hot  cakes  and  warm 
breads,  where  it  changes  the  sticky  or  pasty  character  of  the 
loaf  and  makes  it  more  digestible  when  it  is  to  be  eaten 
hot.  It  is  more  easily  masticated  than  wheat  breads  and 
can  be  prepared  for  the  table  in  a  short  time.  There  is 
no  possibility  that  it  would  ever  supplant  wheat  as  a  bread- 
stuff, nor  would  that  be  desirable,  because  wheat  is  better 
food;  but  since  the  diet  should  have  some  variety,  corn 
well  serves  this  purpose. 


CEREALS  121 

Other  Cereals.  —  Rye  and  buckwheat  are  used  prin- 
cipally as  flour.  Barley  is  used  for  malt  and  pearled  bar- 
ley. Oats  are  prepared  as  breakfast  food  or  for  porridge, 
and  are  more  widely  used  as  such  than  any  of  the  other 
cereals.  Rice  is  used  as  a  breakfast  food,  a  vegetable  in 
place  of  potatoes  to  furnish  the  carbohydrate  part  of  a 
meal,  and  for  making  desserts  and  puddings. 

Macaroni.  —  Macaroni,  spaghetti,  and  vermicelli  are 
prepared  from  a  wheat  called  macaroni  wheat,  which  has 
a  high  gluten  content.  The  gluten  must  be  elastic,  tena- 
cious, and  able  to  absorb  and  hold  about  30  per  cent  of 
water.  The  best  macaroni  wheat  is  raised  in  Italy  and 
Russia,  though  some  of  our  western  states  are  producing  a 
high  grade  of  macaroni  wheat. 

In  the  preparation  of  macaroni,  the  wheat  is  freed  from 
the  bran,  and  some  of  the  starch  is  removed  during  the 
milling,  leaving  a  high  percentage  of  gluten.  The  part  of 
the  grain  used  in  the  manufacture  of  macaroni,  called 
semolina,  is  mixed  with  water  and  kneaded  to  a  stiff  dough. 
It  is  then  put  into  hollow  cylindrical  presses  and  forced 
out  in  tubes  of  various  sizes.  They  are  dried  in  the  open 
air  or  in  drying  rooms.  The  largest  are  called  macaroni, 
the  next  spaghetti,  and  the  smallest  vermicelli. 

A  poor  grade  of  macaroni  is  made  from  bread  flour.  It 
contains  too  much  starch,  has  not  the  right  kind  of  gluten, 
and  is  sticky  or  pasty.  Good  macaroni  is  yellowish  in 
color,  breaks  with  a  smooth  fracture  without  splitting,  and 
retains  its  shape  when  cooked  in  water.  When  macaroni  is 
prepared  with  grated  cheese  and  white  sauce,  as  in  baked 
macaroni,  it  contains  so  much  protein  that  it  may  be  used 
as  the  protein  food  for  the  meal  and  serve  as  a  substitute 
for  meat. 


122  CEREALS 

CEREALS  ARE  MANUFACTURED  INTO  THE  FOLLOWING 

PRODUCTS 

1.  Breakfast    foods, — oatmeal,    rolled    oats,    cream    of    wheat,    i 
hominy,  etc. 

2.  Starch  —  corn,  rice,  wheat. 

3.  Macaroni,  vermicelli,  spaghetti. 

4.  Glucose  —  sirup. 

5.  Cereal  coffee. 

6.  Flour  —  wheat,  rye,  corn,  buckwheat,  rice. 

7.  Liquors  —  malted  drinks,  beer,  whisky. 

8.  Alcohol. 

9.  Feed  for  animals. 

Cereal  Breakfast  Foods.  —  A  few  years  ago  the  market 
was  flooded  with  dozens  of  varieties  of  breakfast  foods 
that  claimed  all  possible  and  impossible  virtues  as  foods. 
The  work  done  by  the  experiment  stations  over  the  coun- 
try in  making  exhaustive  studies  of  breakfast  foods  led  to 
the  withdrawal  of  many  of  the  fraudulent  claims,  and  the 
craze  for  the  prepared  breakfast  foods  seems  to  have  spent 
its  force.  Where  once  a  merchant  was  obliged  to  carry  all 
varieties,  he  finds  now  that  the  demand  has  changed  so 
that  a  half-dozen  well-known  foods  are  all  that  are  called 
for. 

This  does  not  mean  that  breakfast  foods  have  lost  favor, 
but  that  people  are  using  the  oatmeal,  corn  meal,  cracked 
or  flaked  wheat,  and  hominy,  and  preparations  that  have 
to  be  cooked  at  home,  instead  of  the  prepared  forms.  The 
plain  cereals  are  more  economical  than  the  prepared  foods, 
and  a  serving  furnishes  considerably  more  nutrition  than 
the  dry,  cooked,  flaky  kinds.  They  can  be  eaten  day  after 
day  without  losing  savor.  They  merit  an  extensive  use 
because  they  are  prepared  from  the  whole  grains  without 


CEREALS  123 

much  loss  of  nutrients,  and  contain  nearly  all  the  protein 
and  mineral  matter  found  in  the  whole  grain. 

Classes  of  Breakfast  Foods.  —  Breakfast  foods  are 
grouped  into  three  classes.  The  first  class  includes  those 
prepared  by  grinding  the  grain.  In  some  cases  the  outer 
bran  coat  is  removed ;  in  others  nothing  is  removed.  With 
the  use  of  the  fireless  cooker  this  is  the  best  form  to  pur- 
chase them,  because  they  are  cheaper  and  can  be  cooked 
the  night  before  they  are  to  be  used,  and  kept  warm  until 
ready  to  serve. 

The  second  class  includes  those  that  have  been  steam- 
cooked,  and  then  rolled  or  shredded  or  ground  so  that  so 
much  time  is  not  necessary  for  their  cooking.  This  form 
is  best  when  it  is  not  a  question  of  economy,  time,  or  fuel 
saved  in  preparation,  because  the  foods  are  more  attractive 
in  appearance  and  take  less  thought  for  preparation. 

The  third  class  includes  those  that  are  sold  ready  to  eat. 
Some  are  malted ;  some  thoroughly  cooked  and  shredded ; 
some  cooked  in  water,  then  dried  and  rolled;  some  have 
sugar,  molasses,  or  caramel  added ;  some  are  toasted  or 
popped. 

The  malted  foods  are  said  to  possess  special  virtue  be- 
cause they  have  undergone  one  step  in  digestion.  This 
may  or  may  not  be  desirable,  for  the  normal  individual  can 
digest  what  starchy  food  he  takes.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  all  breakfast  foods  are  good  and  merit  an 
extensive  use,  because  even  the  higher-priced  ones  are 
cheap  when  compared  with  other  foods.  They  contain 
the  mineral  matter  that  flour  does  not  contain,  —  phos- 
phorus, calcium,  and  iron;  and  they  contain  a  valuable 
amount  of  cellulose  needed  to  stimulate  peristaltic  action, 
and  aid  in  the  elimination  of  waste.  Mineral  matter 


124  CEREALS 

and  cellulose  together  do  this  better  than  cellulose  can  do 
it  alone. 

Cooking  of  Cereals.  —  The  amount  of  cooking  which  the 
cereals  need  depends  on  the  size  of  the  particles  into  which 
they  are  broken  and  the  amount  of  cellulose  which  they 
contain.  This  varies  greatly  in  the  different  cereals,  rang- 
ing from  9.5  per  cent  in  oats  to  i  per  cent  in  rice. 

By  referring  to  the  section  of  a  grain  of  wheat  (p.  in),  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  protein  and  starch  are  inclosed  in  walls 
of  cellulose,  and  that  the  grain  must  be  cooked  long  enough 
to  soften  the  cellulose  and  gelatinize  the  starch,  and  free  it 
and  the  protein  from  the  indigestible  covering.  Heat  and 
moisture  soften  the  wall,  and  cause  the  starch  to  swell  and 
burst  it.  Long,  slow  cooking  accomplishes  this  best.  Be- 
cause it  saves  fuel,  and  needs  no  watching  to  prevent  burn- 
ing, the  fireless  cooker  is  the  best  medium  for  cooking 
cereals.  When  cereals  are  cooked  in  water,  much  of  the 
starch,  mineral  matter,  and  some  protein  are  dissolved  out 
and  lost  in  the  water.  To  prevent  this  loss  it  is  best  to 
cook  cereals  in  a  small  quantity  of  water  that  will  be  ab- 
sorbed, to  steam-cook  them ;  or  to  use  much  water  and  to 
use  the  water  strained  off  for  cream  soup  or  other  purposes. 

Place  of  Cereals  in  the  Diet.  —  Cereals  contain  the  proper 
nutritive  ingredients  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  body 
for  energy  and  tissue  building.  The  nutritive  ratio  of 
wheat  is  i :  6,  oats  1:7,  corn  i :  8,  the  ratio  in  every  case 
being  higher  than  that  accepted  by  Chittenden,  and  the 
average  would  be  that  accepted  by  other  authorities.  The 
whole  grains  contain  all  the  mineral  matter  needed  by  the 
body,  in  an  available  form. 

They  are  used  so  extensively  and  universally  that  they 
form  the  chief  food  the  world  over.  Rice  is  used  in  the 


CEREALS 


125 


Orient,  rye  in  northern  Europe,  buckwheat  in  Russia,  corn 
in  Africa  and  in  our  southern  states,  and  wheat  every- 
where. Among  the  poorer  classes  in  all  countries  they  form 
almost  the  sole  food.  When  the  cereals  are  prepared  for 
sale,  some  protein  and  two  thirds  of  the  mineral  matter  are 
usually  removed,  so  people  who  depend  on  the  cereals  to 
supply  over  one  half  of  their  food  material  do  not  get  the 
right  amount  of  mineral  matter.  It  has  become  the  cus- 
tom to  say  that  the  necessary  amount  of  mineral  matter 
will  be  supplied  in  a  diet  rich  in  green  vegetables  and  fruits, 
and  for  that  reason  the  loss  in  patent  flour  and  fine  meals 
is  not  important.  City  families  who  have  to  live  on  less 
than  $1000  a  year  cannot  purchase  an  abundance  of  green 
vegetables  and  fruits,  because  they  are  expensive,  and  so  the 
loss  is  never  made  up.  It  would  seem  best  to  advocate  the 
use  of  the  breakfast  foods  prepared  from  the  whole  grain, 
and  the  use  of  unbolted  meals,  and  whole  wheat  or  Graham 
flour.  When  we  consider  how  many  people  use  nothing 
but  bread,  meat,  potatoes,  sugar,  and  some  form  of  fat, 
we  can  see  the  need  of  foods  prepared  from  the  whole  of 
the  grain,  to  supply  all  the  elements  needed  by  the  body, 
in  the  right  proportion,  at  a  low  cost,  and  in  a  form  so 
appetizing  that  no  great  effort  is  needed  to  persuade  children 
to  partake  of  the  foods  so  prepared. 

NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  OATMEAL  AND  CREAM  FOR  CHILD  OF  5 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

CAL. 
PROTEIN 

CAL.  FAT 

CAL. 
CARBOHYDRATE 

Oatmeal 

2  OZ 

^8 

•27 

I  ^O 

Cream      

2  OZ. 

6 

03 

IO 

Sugar  

\  oz. 

57 

Total      .     .     . 

44 

130 

217 

126 


CEREALS 


COMPOSITION  OF  CEREALS  AND  CEREAL  PRODUCTS 


KIND 

WATER 

PRO- 
TEIN 

FAT 

CARBOHY- 
DRATE 

CELLULOSE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per 

Cent 

Per 
Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

OAT     PREPARA- 

TIONS : 

Oats,        whole 

grain    .     .     . 

II.O 

11.8 

5-0 

59-7 

9-5 

3-0 

Raw  oatmeal    . 

7-3 

16.1 

7.2 

66.6 

•9 

1.9 

Steam-cooked, 

rolled  oats     . 

8.2 

16.1 

74 

65.2 

1-3 

1.8 

Flaked        and 

malted  oats  . 

7-9 

16.2 

5-2 

66.7 

1.6 

2.4 

WHEAT: 

Whole  grain     . 

10.5 

11.9 

2.1 

71.9 

1.8 

1.8 

Cracked  wheat 

IO.I 

ii.  i 

i-7 

73-8 

1.7 

1.6 

Steam-cooked, 

rolled  wheat 

10.6 

10.2 

1.8 

74.1 

1.8 

i-5 

Ready    to    eat, 

flaked       and 

crisp    .     .     . 

94 

12.2 

1.4 

72.7 

1.9 

2.4 

Shredded  wheat 

8.1 

IO.6 

1.4 

76.0 

2.1 

1.8 

Farina     .     .     . 

10.9 

II.O 

1.4 

75-9 

4 

4 

Patent       roller 

process    flour 

I2.O 

II.4 

I.O 

74-8 

•3 

•5 

Entire      wheat 

flour     .     .     . 

11.4 

13-8 

1.9 

71.0 

•9 

I.O 

Graham  flour   . 

n-3 

13-3 

2.2 

69-5 

1.9 

1.8 

BARLEY  : 

Whole  grain 

10.9 

12.4 

1.8 

69.8 

2.7 

2.4 

Pearled  barley  . 

ii.  5 

8-5 

I.I 

77-5 

•3 

i.i 

Steam-cooked, 

flaked  .     .     . 

8.8 

10.6 

.8 

77-7 

1.2 

•9 

BUCKWHEAT  : 

Flour       .     .     . 

13.6 

6.4 

1.2 

77-5 

4 

•9 

Farina     .     .     . 

"•3 

3-3 

•3 

84.6 

.1 

4 

Groats     .     .     . 

10.6 

4-8 

.6 

83-1 

•3 

.6 

CEREALS  127 

COMPOSITION  OF  CEREALS  AND  CEREAL  PRODUCTS  —  Continued 


KIND 

WATER 

PRO- 
TEIN 

FAT 

CARBOHY- 
DRATE 

CELLULOSE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per 
Cent 

Per 
Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

CORN: 

Whole  grain 

IO.Q 

10.5 

5-4 

69.6 

2.1 

1-5 

Unbolted    corn 

meal    .     .     . 

n.6 

8.4 

4-7 

74.0 

.  . 

1-3 

Bolted        corn 

meal    .     .     . 

12.5 

9.2 

1.9 

74-4 

I.O 

I.O 

Hominy        .     . 

10.9 

8.6 

.6 

79.2     ' 

•4 

•3 

Parched,  flaked 

7-3 

10.  1 

1.8 

77.2 

1.2 

2.4 

Popped        pop 

corn     .     .     . 

4-3 

10.7 

5-o 

77-3 

1.4 

1-3 

RICE: 

Polished   whole 

rice      .     .     . 

12.3 

6.9 

•3 

80.0 

.   . 

•5 

Steam-cooked, 

flaked       .     . 

IO.2 

8.3 

•3 

79-7 

1.2 

•3 

Puffed  rice  .     . 

7-i 

6.2 

.6 

85-7 

.  . 

•4 

Popped  rice 

•  7 

8.6 

.2 

90.0 

•  5 

CHAPTER   III 
LEGUMES 

LEGUMES  are  a  class  of  plants  that  have  the  power  to 
take  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  put  it  into  a  form  that  is 
available  as  food  for  man  and  the  lower  animals.  They 
include  beans,  peas,  lentils,  peanuts,  clover,  and  alfalfa, 
and  differ  from  other  plants  in  that  they  have  little  nodules 
at  their  roots,  containing  bacteria  that  have  the  power  to 
take  nitrogen  from  the  air.  The  plant  uses  this  nitrogen  in 
building  proteins.  The  percentage  of  protein  in  the  leg- 
umes is  so  high  that  they  are  classed  with  meat  and 
cheese  as  tissue-building  foods. 

Like  the  cereals,  legumes  are  used  the  world  over  for  food, 
probably  more  extensively  in  other  countries  than  in  Amer- 
ica, because  in  other  countries  they  take  the  place  of  meat, 
and  the  people  understand  better  how  to  cook  them  so 
that  they  can  be  easily  digested.  In  the  use  of  legumes 
and  cheese  European  countries  have  surpassed  America, 
and  the  reason,  doubtless,  is  because  the  poorer  classes 
have  not  been  able  to  purchase  meat  and  so  have  found  sub- 
stitutes and  better  ways  of  preparing  them.  Foreigners 
can  teach  us  many  things  about  cooking  legumes  and 
cheese.  Americans  do  not  know  much  about  economics 
in  food.  They  have  spent  their  talents  in  preparing  high- 
priced,  appetizing  foods  for  the  well-to-do,  and  the  poorer 
classes  have  lived  on  baker's  bread  and  tea.  The  soup 

128 


LEGUMES 


129 


kitchens  have  a  mission  other  than  supplying  food  to  school 
children.  They  could  teach  the  uses  of  the  legumes,  and 
their  preparation  in  the  fireless  cooker.  Legumes  furnish 
1.6  per  cent  of  the  total  food  consumed  in  the  American 
diet,  3.3  per  cent  of  the  protein,  .2  per  cent  of  the  fat,  2 
per  cent  of  the  carbohydrate. 

Composition.  —  Legumes  should  be  classed  in  two  dis- 
tinct classes  because  the  fresh  and  dried  forms  differ  so 
widely  in  nutritive  value  and  use. 

COMPOSITION  OF  LEGUMES 


MATERIALS 

WATER 

PRO- 
TEIN 

FAT 

CARBOHY- 
DRATE 

CELLULOSE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per 
Cent 

Per 
Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

FRESH  LEGUMES: 

String  beans 

89.2 

2-3 

•3 

74 

1.9 

.8 

Shelled   kidney 

beans  .     .     . 

58.9 

94 

.6 

29.1 

1-7 

2.0 

Shelled      lima 

beans   .     .     . 

68.5 

7-i 

•7 

22.Q 

1-7 

i-7 

Shelled  peas 

74.6 

7.0 

•  5 

16.9 

1-7 

I.O 

DRIED  LEGUMES: 

Lima  beans 

10.4 

18.1 

i-5 

65.9 

p 

4.1 

Navy  beans 

12.6 

22.5 

1.8 

59-6 

44 

3-5 

Lentils     .     .     . 

8.4 

25.7 

Z.O 

59-2 

? 

5-7 

Dried  peas  .     . 

9-5 

24.6 

I.O 

62.0 

4-5 

2.9 

Peanuts  .     .     . 

9.2 

25-8 

38.6 

24.4 

2-5 

2.0 

String  beans  compare  with  other  green  vegetables  in 
nutritive  value ;  shelled  beans  and  peas  with  the  roots  and 
tubers,  although  they  contain  considerably  more  protein; 
and  the  dried  legumes  with  cheese,  nuts,  and  chocolate,  all 
considered  concentrated  foods. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  the  dried  legumes  is  i :  2j,  which 

CONLEY,  N.  &  D. Q 


I3o  LEGUMES 

shows  that  they  belong  with  the  tissue-building  foods. 
They  contain  from  18  to  25  per  cent  protein,  mostly  in  the 
form  of  legumin,  —  a  globulin.  With  the  exception  of  pea- 
nuts they  contain  scarcely  any  fat ;  all  except  peanuts  con- 
tain from  59  to  66  per  cent  carbohydrate  in  the  form  of 
starch  and  cellulose,  the  cellulose  content  reaching  as 
high  as  4.5  per  cent  in  dried  peas. 

They  contain  mineral  matter  in  the  form  of  lime,  potas- 
sium, and  sulphur  compounds,  although  they  contain  the 
other  elements  also.  Lentils  contain  a  high  percentage 
of  iron,  and  not  so  much  sulphur  as  the  other  legumes,  and 
for  that  reason  they  are  more  easily  digested.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  they  are  not  used  more  extensively  in  this 
country,  although  they  are  used  to  some  extent  among  our 
foreign  population. 

From  their  composition,  it  would  seem  that  the  dried 
legumes  could  be  used  largely  and  profitably  as  substitutes 
for  meat,  and  that  if  fat  in  some  form  is  added  they  would 
serve  as  a  balanced  food.  They  contain  more  protein  than 
meat,  fish,  eggs,  milk,  and  as  much  as  cheese.  They  con- 
tain enough  carbohydrate,  so  that  if  fat  is  added,  as  in  cook- 
ing beans  with  pork,  the  nutritive  ratio  can  be  adjusted 
to  any  standard.  They  contain  cellulose  for  bulk  and 
sufficient  mineral  matter  to  supply  all  the  needs  of  the 
body. 

But  neither  composition  alone,  nor  composition  and  low 
cost,  can  make  a  perfect  and  satisfactory  food.  The  third 
factor,  digestibility,  is  even  more  important,  because  the 
old  saying,  "  It  is  not  what  we  eat,  but  what  we  digest,  that 
nourishes  the  body/7  applies  to  this  class  of  foods  more 
directly  than  to  any  other  class,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  nuts. 


LEGUMES  131 

Structure.  —  Dried  peas,  beans,  and  lentils  are  so  similar 
in  composition  that  a  study  may  be  made  of  any  one  of  them, 
which  will  serve  for  all.  Beans  have  been  taken  as  the 
type  because  they  are  used  more  widely  in  the  dried  form, 
in  this  country,  than  either  of  the  others.  In  the  fresh 
form  peas  are  the  greater  favorite. 

Dried  navy  beans  contain  22.5  per  cent  protein,  1.8  per 
cent  fat,  59.6  per  cent  carbohydrate,  4.4  per  cent  cellulose, 
and  3.5  per  cent  mineral  matter.  The  carbohydrate  and 
protein  are  stored  in  cells,  the  walls  of  which  are  cellulose, 
of  considerable  thickness,  for  the  cellulose  makes  up  4.4 
per  cent  of  the  seed.  This  means  that  they  are  so  sur- 
rounded with  cellulose  that  it  will  take  long,  slow  cooking  to 
soften  the  walls  and  free  the  starch  and  protein,  and  allow  the 
water  to  reach  them.  This  is  hard  to  accomplish,  because, 
ordinarily,  beans  are  cooked  whole,  and  the  heat  and  mois- 
ture must  penetrate  the  whole  mass.  They  are  served 
whole,  and  it  has  been  found  that  a  varying  percentage  of 
the  starch  and  protein  not  only  escapes  digestion,  but  also 
escapes  cooking.  To  repeat,  the  starch  and  protein  are  so 
intermixed  with  the  cellulose  that  in  the  whole  seed  much 
escapes  cooking  and  digestion;  and  because  of  the  delay  in 
digestion,  fermentation  frequently  sets  in  and  causes  the  dis- 
tress that  people  are  subject  to  who  find  that  beans  do  not 
agree  with  them.  If  the  beans  are  ground  into  meal,  or  finely 
divided,  they  will  cook  more  thoroughly,  and  will  be  digested 
more  readily,  without  causing  digestive  disturbances. 

Digestibility.  -  -  The  coefficients  of  digestibility  for  pro- 
teins and  fats  are  not  nearly  so  high  in  vegetable  foo'ds  as 
in  animal  foods.  They  are  not  so  high  for  carbohydrate,  but 
the  difference  is  not  so  marked.  Several  reasons  are  given 
for  the  losses  in  digestion,  among  them  the  following: 


132 


LEGUMES 


The  protein  and  fat  in  meat  and  fish  are  more  like  the 
human  body  in  composition  and  so  are  more  readily  assim- 
ilated ;  the  proteins  in  meat  are  more  pleasing  to  the  taste 
and  call  out  more  digestive  juices,  or  rather,  call  out  a 
greater  quantity  of  the  digestive  juices;  the  protein, 
starch,  and  cellulose  are  so  intermixed  that  cooking  does 
not  release  them,  and  they  escape  digestion.  The  last 
reason  is,  undoubtedly,  the  greatest  factor.  The  following 
table,'  taken  from  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  142,  gives  the  figures 
showing  coefficients  of  digestibility  for  different  foods :  — 


KIND 

PROTEIN 
DIGESTIBILITY 

FAT 
DIGESTIBILITY 

CARBOHYDRATE 
DIGESTIBILITY 

Meat  and  fish  .... 

EFCS  . 

Per  Cent 

97 
07 

Per  Cent 

95 
05 

Per  Cent 
98 
08 

Dairy  products  .  .  . 
Cereals  

97 
8< 

95 
oo 

98 
08 

Legumes  
Vegetables  
Fruits 

78 
83 
8< 

90 
90 

oo 

97 
95 

AIT 

vw 

Legumes  have  a  lower  coefficient  of  digestibility  for  pro- 
tein than  the  other  vegetable  foods,  and  it  is  probably  due 
to  the  structure  of  the  cell,  —  tough  walls  of  cellulose  con- 
taining starch  and  protein  in  close  combination. 

Legumes  are  not  digested  to  any  great  extent  in  the 
stomach,  and  they  remain  there  longer  than  most  foods. 
This  is  doubtless  the  reason  why  they  are  considered  in- 
digestible. The  digestion  in  the  intestine  is  fairly  complete, 
except  for  the  protein ;  but  with  the  sulphur  present  and  the 
large  amount  of  starch  and  cellulose,  if  digestion  is  delayed, 
fermentation  sets  in  and  gases  are  formed  which  cause  the 
discomfort  occasioned  by  an  overindulgence  in  baked  beans. 


LEGUMES 


133 


If  the  skin  is  removed  from  the  dried  legumes,  and  they 
are  ground  into  meal  or  flour,  very  little  escapes  digestion. 
If  they  are  thoroughly  soaked  first,  and  then  cooked  for  a 
long  time  at  a  moderate  temperature  so  as  not  to  make  the 
protein  harder  to  digest,  and  if  eaten  in  moderate  quantities, 
they  are  a  nutritious,  wholesome,  and  cheap  food,  and  should 
be  substituted  occasionally  for  meat  in  the  diet.  The  fresh 
legumes  are  universal  favorites  as  green  vegetable  foods. 

Peanuts,  while  usually  considered  nuts,  are  the  seeds 
of  a  leguminous  plant  and  when  raw  taste  much  like  beans. 
They  have  not  been  considered  a  food,  but  merely  a  relish 
or  addition  to  the  diet,  much  as  candy  is  considered, 
although  they  have  high  nutritive  value.  Several  prep- 
arations are  now  marketed  with  a  view  to  using  them  as  a 
food ;  the  commonest  is  peanut  butter,  much  used  for 

sandwiches. 

Lunch  or  Supper  for  Four  People 

Man  at  sedentary  occupation,  woman  at  moderately  active  work, 
boy  13-14  years,  girl  15-16  years. 

LENTIL  SOUP.     NUTRITIVE  VALUE  IN  CALORIES 


FOOD 

QUANTITY 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBOHYDRATE 

Lentils  .     .     . 

ilb. 

234 

2O 

539 

Flour    .     .     . 

I  OZ. 

12 

2 

86 

Butter  .     .     . 

2  OZ. 

4 

430 

.... 

Soda  crackers 

12  OZ. 

133 

276 

998 

Total  .     . 

383 

728 

1623 

Cost  $.17. 

For  4  people:    383  Cal.  Protein,  2351  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 
Per  person  :   96  Cal.  Protein,  588  Cal.  Fat  and  Carbohydrate. 
One  fourth  of  daily  ration. 
Supplies  also  iron,  lime,  and  potash,  and  other  mineral  salts. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 

A.  Starchy  Roots  and  Tubers. 

Potato.  Tapioca. 

Sweet  potato.  Sago. 

Yam.  Arrowroot. 

B.  Succulent  Roots  and  Tubers. 

Onions.  Kohlrabi. 

Beets.  Celeriac. 

Carrots.  Salisfy. 

Rutabagas.  Parsnips. 

White  turnips.  Radishes,  etc. 

COMPOSITION  OF  POTATOES  AND  SWEET  POTATOES 


FOOD 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBOHYDRATE 

CELLULOSE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Potato     .     . 

78.3 

2.2 

.1 

18.0 

•4 

I.O 

Sweet  potato 

69. 

1.8 

O.y 

26.1 

1-3 

I.I 

Vegetable   Foods  —  Roots   and   Tubers   and   Bulbs.  - 
Roots,  tubers,  and  bulbs  are  either  the  roots,  or  the  thick- 
ened stems  of  vegetables,  in  which  starch  or  sugar  is  stored 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  young  plant  when  it  shall  need 

134 


ROOTS  AND   TUBERS  135 

it.  They  contain  70-90  per  cent  water;  8-26  per  cent 
carbohydrates,  in  the  form  of  starch,  sugar,  pectin,  and 
cellulose ;  i  per  cent  mineral  salts ;  less  than  2  per  cent 
protein ;  and  only  a  trace  of  fat.  As  purchased,  they  con- 
tain about  20  per  cent  refuse.  From  the  above  it  will  be 
seen  that  their  food  value  depends  on  the  carbohydrates 
and  mineral  salts. 

They  are  easily  raised,  can  be  stored  for  winter  use,  are 
cheap,  and  furnish  great  variety  to  the  diet  because  they 
can  be  served  in  many  forms.  They  furnish  about  16  per 
cent  of  the  average  American  diet.  Potatoes  alone  furnish 
12  per  cent. 

Roots  and  tubers  should  be  studied  in  two  general  classes 
because  of  the  variance  in  the  amount  of  carbohydrates, 
in  the  amount  of  water,  and  in  the  rank  and  importance 
in  the  diet. 

1.  Starchy  roots  and  tubers,  which   include   potatoes, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  yams,  contain  18-26  per  cent  carbohy- 
drates, mainly  in  the  form  of  starch,  and  68-78  per  cent 
water.     In  this  class  are  also  included  those  tropical  starchy 
foods  prepared  from  roots  and  stems,  such  as  tapioca,  arrow- 
root, and  sago.     In  the  dry  state  they  contain  about  83  per 
cent  starch  in  a  form  very  easily  digested ;  but  when  cooked, 
they  have  about  the  same  food  value  as  the  potato,  having 
absorbed  at  least  eight  times  their  weight  of  water. 

2.  Succulent  roots  and  tubers,  the  commonest  of  which 
are  beets,   carrots,   onions,   turnips,   rutabagas,   parsnips, 
salsify,  celeriac,  radishes,  kohlrabi,  and  garlic,  contain  7-12 
per  cent  carbohydrates,  and  83-90  per  cent  water.     The 
flavor  and  odor  of  these  foods  are  due  to  the  presence  of 
volatile  oils  which  may  be  retained  or  dissipated  by  proper 
cooking. 


136 


ROOTS  AND   TUBERS 


TYPICAL  STARCHY  FOOD  — POTATO 

Structure  and  Composition.  --  The  potato  is  a  thickened 
underground  stem  or  tuber  in  which  nourishment  is  stored 
for  the  young  plant.  This  stored  nourishment  is  princi- 
pally insoluble  starch,  and  when  in  this  form  is  of  great 
value  as  a  human  food.  As  the  plant  sprouts,  a  ferment 
in  the  potato  changes  part  of  the  starch  to  soluble  glucose 

for  circulating 
nourishment,  and 
unfits  the  potato 
for  food. 

The  potato  con- 
sists of  a  network 
of  cells  held  to- 
gether by  a  frame- 
work of  cellulose 
and  surrounded  by 
a  brown  corky  skin 
which  serves  to  re- 
tain the  nourish- 
ment. The  walls 
of  the  cells  are  also 

of  crude  fiber  or  cellulose,  but  so  fine  are  the  fibers  that 
cellulose  makes  up  but  .4  per  cent  of  the  potato.  Because 
of  the  low  cellulose  content,  potatoes  cook  more  quickly 
than  some  of  the  more  woody  roots  and  tubers.  The  cells, 
which  become  less  dense  near  the  center  of  the  potato,  con- 
tain water,  starch,  and  a  small  amount  of  protein  and 
mineral  matter,  and  an  inappreciable  amount  of  fat. 

Potatoes  contain  78.3  per  cent  water ;  18.4  per  cent  car- 
bohydrate, of  which  about  16  per  cent  is  starch  (2  per  cent 


TRANSVERSE  AND  LONGI- 
TUDINAL SECTIONS  or 
THE  POTATO. 

A,  skin;    B,    cortical    layer; 

C,  outer    medullary  layer; 

D,  inner    medullary    area. 
(From    Farmers'  Bulletin, 
No.  s8g,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture.) 


ROOTS  AND   TUBERS  137 

dextrin,  sugar,  and  pectose)  and  .4  per  cent  cellulose; 
2.2  per  cent  nitrogenous  matter,  of  which  about  1.3  per  cent 
is  protein,  and  the  remainder  extractives,  as,  asparagin 
and  amido  acids;  i  per  cent  mineral  matter,  mostly  potash 
salts  and  phosphoric  acid  compounds.  The  mineral  salts 
greatly  increase  the  food  value  of  potatoes,  because  of  their 
use  in  digestion  and  in  aiding  to  preserve  the  alkalinity  of 
the  blood. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  the  potato  is  above  i :  14,  which 
shows  that  it  must  be  eaten  with  a  protein  food  to  serve 
the  needs  of  the  body.  It  contains  about  22  per  cent  nu- 
trients, and  one  pound  has  a  fuel  value  of  375  calories.  One 
medium-sized  potato  weighs  one  half  pound.  From  this 
it  will  be  seen  that  it  must  be  eaten  with  a  more  concen- 
trated food  to  supply  the  proper  amount  of  fuel  needed. 

Selection.  —  Potatoes  are  distinguished  as  mealy,  soggy, 
and  waxy.  The  mealy  potato  cooks  into  a  light,  flaky 
mass  which  readily  falls  apart,  and  it  is  said  this  quality 
is  produced  by  the  even  and  abundant  distribution 
of  starch  throughout  the  tuber.  If,  however,  the  water  is 
more  abundant  in  the  center  of  the  potato,  it  settles  there 
and  produces  a  soggy  potato.  By  improper  cooking,  - 
allowing  the  steam  to  condense  into  water  in  the  potato,  — 
any  potato  will  become  soggy.  Some  potatoes  contain 
more  protein  than  others.  This  is  especially  so  in  young, 
new  potatoes.  During  the  cooking  of  these  potatoes  the 
protein  is  coagulated  and  forms  a  framework  which  holds 
the  starch  in  place  and  produces  a  waxy,  rather  than  a 
mealy,  potato. 

It  would  seem  that  the  best  method  of  selecting  potatoes 
is,  either  to  know  the  variety,  though  they  differ  with 
soil  and  season,  or  to  cook  some  for  experiment  before  pur- 


138  ROOTS  AND   TUBERS 

chasing  a  winter  supply.  Nearly  all  people  desire  a  dry, 
mealy  potato,  and,  as  has  been  said,  this  may  depend  on  two 
factors  —  starch  content  and  distribution,  and  proper 
cooking. 

It  is  best  to  select  a  medium-sized  potato  with  a  smooth 
skin,  as  there  is  less  refuse.  The  flesh  of  a  small  potato  is 
apt  to  be  firmer  than  that  of  a  large  one  and  it  cooks  more 
evenly. 

The  characteristic  potato  flavor  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
a  trace  of  a  poisonous  alkaloid,  solanin,  which  volatilizes 
during  cooking.  Potatoes  which  have  turned  green  be- 
cause they  have  grown  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  old 
potatoes  which  have  sprouted,  and  unripe  potatoes  con- 
tain considerable  solanin  and  are  apt  to  lead  to  digestive 
disturbances.  For  these  reasons  potatoes  should  be  se- 
lected that  are  matured,  have  uniform  color,  and  are  free 
from  blemishes. 

Storage.  —  As  the  potato  contains  the  germ  of  life  and 
the  nourishment  for  its  development,  it  is  simply  waiting 
until  conditions  are  favorable  to  sprout.  Ferments  present 
change  the  starch  to  soluble  sugar  and  also  break  down  the 
sugar.  Water  is  lost  by  evaporation;  the  potato  loses  its 
texture  and  flavor,  and  develops  a  sweetish  taste.  To 
prevent  as  far  as  possible  these  changes,  potatoes  should 
be  stored  in  dry,  dark,  well-ventilated  rooms,  and  kept  at 
a  temperature  just  above  freezing,  between  33  and  45°  F., 
because  the  ferments  detrimental  to  potatoes  are  not  active 
at  so  low  a  temperature. 

Products.  —  Potatoes  form  40  per  cent  of  the  total  vege- 
table crop  of  the  United  States,  and  while  most  of  them  are 
consumed  as  an  article  of  diet  in  their  natural  state,  they 
also  serve  other  uses.  Potato  starch  is  manufactured  from 


ROOTS  AND   TUBERS  139 

them  and  is  mainly  used  as  sizing  for  cotton  cloth  and  paper. 
Glucose  is  manufactured  from  potatoes,  though  not  so  ex- 
tensively as  formerly,  corn  having  taken  its  place.  Much 
is  being  written  of  the  desirability  of  manufacturing 
alcohol  from  potatoes,  though  they  have  always  been  a 
source  of  its  production.  The  reasons  for  developing  this 
industry  are  the  new  uses  for  alcohol,  and  the  low  prices 
that  potatoes  bring  in  years  of  abundant  crop,  so  low  a  price 
that  the  farmer  cannot  afford  to  haul  them  to  market.  At 
such  a  time  they  are  used  as  feed  for  stock. 

Dried  or  dehydrated  vegetables,  as  they  are  now  called, 
are  found  in  the  market  and  have  value.  They  may  be 
shipped  from  coast  to  coast  at  a  low  freight  rate.  Because 
of  the  loss  of  water  they  are  not  bulky  and  will  keep  for  an 
indefinite  time,  regaining  much  of  their  natural  flavor  and 
appearance  when  soaked  in  water.  They  are  used  only 
where  fresh  vegetables  are  unobtainable. 

Digestibility.  —  From  experiments  made  in  actual  dietary 
studies  it  has  been  found  that  potatoes  are  easily  and  thor- 
oughly digested  and,  under  normal  conditions,  lead  to  no 
digestive  disturbances.  In  comparison  with  other  vege- 
tables they  contain  a  low  percentage  of  cellulose,  so  but 
little  of  the  carbohydrates  escapes  digestion.  Digestion 
begins  in  the  mouth  with  the  action  of  ptyalin  on  the  starch. 
As  potatoes  contain  a  very  small  amount  of  protein,  there 
is  practically  no  change  in  the  stomach.  The  digestion  is 
completed  by  the  amylopsin  and  invertin  in  the  intestine. 
The  coefficient  of  digestibility  for  the  carbohydrates  in 
potatoes  is  about  98  per  cent,  which  shows  that  they  are  as 
thoroughly  and  completely  digested  as  any  other  vegetable 
food. 

Potatoes  alone  furnish  12.5  per  cent  of  the  average  Ameri- 


140  ROOTS  AND   TUBERS 

can  diet.  They  are  the  only  vegetable,  with  the  exception 
of  the  cereals,  that  people  will  use  every  day  in  the  year  and 
not  tire  of.  They  are  usually  served  with  meat  and  other 
protein  foods,  to  bring  up  the  carbohydrate  content  and 
balance  the  meal.  They  are  almost  universally  eaten,  and 
may  be  classed  as  an  indispensable  article  of  diet,  and  a 
cheap  food,  even  in  seasons  when  the  crop  has  not  been 
up  to  average.  They  are  especially  valuable  for  their 
mineral  salts,  which  help  to  keep  the  blood  in  healthy 
condition. 

Preparation.  —  Potatoes  should  be  pared  thin,  as  much 
of  ithe  protein  and  mineral  salts  are  directly  under  the  skin 
and  are  lost  in  deep  paring.  When  pared  potatoes  are 
exposed  to  the  air,  they  turn  dark,  due  to  the  action  of 
ferments  in  the  plant  which  become  active  in  the  presence 
of  oxygen.  This  may  be  prevented  by  covering  the  po- 
tatoes with  water  to  exclude  the  air.  If  pared  potatoes 
are  soaked  in  cold  water,  much  soluble  protein  and  starch 
and  mineral  matter  are  lost.  If  they  are  plunged  into  boil- 
ing water,  the  protein  is  coagulated  and  its  loss  is  lessened ; 
but  the  loss  of  the  mineral  matter  remains  the  same. 

It  will  be  seen  that  by  paring  the  potatoes  and  cooking 
them  in  water  there  is  a  loss  of  nutrients  that  cannot  be 
easily  spared,  and  that  would  raise  the  food  value  of  the 
potato. 

If  boiled  in  their  jackets,  steamed,  or  baked,  potatoes 
lose  an  inappreciable  percentage  of  nutrients  and  have  a 
better  flavor. 

Cooking.  -  -  The  object  of  cooking  potatoes  is  to  release 
the  starch  from  the  cell  walls.  It  is  stored  in  minute  cells 
which  contain  starch,  water,  and  some  protein,  and  heat 
causes  the  starch  to  absorb  the  water  and  swell.  When 


ROOTS  AND   TUBERS 


141 


this  is  accomplished,  any  excess  water  should  pass  off  as 
steam,  and  the  result  should  be  a  flaky,  mealy  potato.  To 
release  the  steam,  baked  potatoes  should  be  pierced,  and 
all  potatoes  should  be  served  in  an  uncovered  dish.  Cook- 
ing also  coagulates  the  protein,  liberates  the  volatile  oils, 


CHANGES  OF  STARCH  CELLS  IN  COOKING. 

a,  Cells  of  a  raw  potato  with  starch  grains  in  natural  condition;  b,  cells  of  a  partially 
cooked  potato;  c,  cells  of  a  thoroughly  boiled  potato.  (From  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No. 
389,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

and  may  change  some  of  the  starch  to  dextrin.  It  devel- 
ops the  flavor  and  makes  them  palatable. 

Sweet  Potatoes  are  like  potatoes  in  structure  and  very 
similar  in  composition.  They  contain,  however,  26  per 
cent  carbohydrates,  of  which  about  16  per  cent  is  starch 
and  10  per  cent  sugar,  though  this  proportion  varies 
greatly.  The  northern  sweet  potatoes,  as  the  Jerseys, 
contain  more  starch  (20  per  cent  starch)  and  cook  drier 
and  mealier  than  the  southern  type,  in  which  the  sugar  is 
in  greater  proportion. 

Sweet  potatoes  contain  69  per  cent  water,  —  9  per  cent 
less  than  potatoes.  They  contain  1.3  per  cent  cellulose, 
which  accounts  for  the  longer  time  that  it  takes  to  cook 
them.  Their  nutritive  ratio  is  about  i :  20,  but  the  fuel 
value  is  higher  than  that  of  potatoes.  They  yield  570 
calories  per  pound. 


142 


ROOTS  AND   TUBERS 


Cooking.  —  Because  the  ratio  of  starch  to  sugar  varies 
so  greatly  in  the  different  varieties,  the  effect  of  heat  on 
them  brings  out  different  characteristics.  Heat  causes 
starch  to  swell,  to  burst  the  cell  wall,  and  the  whole  mass  to 
become  flaky.  It  causes  sugar  to  dissolve  in  the  water 
and  become  sirupy.  The  sweet  potato,  with  20  per  cent 
or  more  of  starch,  is  dry  and  mealy,  and  slightly  sweet,  and 
suits  the  northern  taste.  The  sweet  potato  containing 
10-13  per  cent  sugar  is  moist  and  very  sweet,  and  cannot 
be  served  so  universally  as  potatoes,  because  many  people 
do  not  care  for  it.  Sweet  potatoes  are  best  baked,  though 
they  are  often  boiled  and  served  in  many  other  ways. 

Place  in  the  Diet.  —  As  sweet  potatoes  have  practically 
the  same  nutritive  value  as  potatoes,  they  must  supplant 
them  in  the  diet  in  districts  or  countries  where  they  are 
raised.  In  those  places  they  are  as  cheap  as  potatoes 
and  as  well  liked.  In  the  northern  market  6  pounds  are 
sometimes  sold  for  25  cents,  and  hence  they  cannot  take  the 
place  of  potatoes  selling  at  i  to  ij  cents  a  pound.  Their 
place,  then,  is  to  add  variety  to  the  diet. 

SUCCULENT  ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 
AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  EDIBLE  PORTION 


FOOD 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

CELLULOSE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Beets     .     . 

87.5 

1.6 

.1 

8.8 

•9 

I.I 

Celeriac 

84.1 

1-5 

•4 

n.8 

1.4 

.8 

Carrots 

88.2 

I.I 

•4 

8.2 

I.I 

i. 

Parsnips 

83 

1.6 

•5 

ii. 

2-5 

1.4 

Salsify   .     . 

854 

4-3 

•3 

6.8 

2. 

1.2 

Turnips 

89.6 

i-3 

.2 

6.8 

i-3 

.8 

Rutabagas  . 

88.9 

i-3 

.2 

7-3 

1.2 

i.i 

Onions   .     . 

87.6 

1.6 

•3 

9.1 

.8 

.6 

ROOTS  AND   TUBERS  143 

•  The  succulent  roots  and  tubers  contain  more  water  and 
less  nutrients  than  the  starchy  roots  and  tubers,  and  hence 
have  a  lower  food  value.  They  contain  7-12  per  cent 
carbohydrates,  1-2.5  Per  cent  cellulose,  about  i  per  cent 
mineral  salts,  less  than  2  per  cent  protein,  and  scarcely 
any  fat. 

They  are  valuable  additions  to  the  diet  because  of  their 
mineral  salts,  large  amount  of  cellulose,  and  agreeable 
flavor,  and  because  they  furnish  variety  to  the  diet.  They 
also  furnish  some  carbohydrates. 

Roots  and  tubers  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place  to 
prevent  them  from  sprouting.  In  the  storage  of  all  foods, 
the  conditions  favorable  to  growth  and  germination  of  the 
plant  should  be  studied;  and  from  this  can  be  learned  the 
storage  conditions  which  best  prevent  germination  and  keep 
the  food  from  undergoing  changes  that  will  unfit  it  for  use 
as  a  food.  The  same  thing  applies  to  the  study  of  bacteria 
which  cause  the  decay  of  food.  Both  seeds  and  bacteria 
need  moisture,  warmth,  and  food  for  development.  To 
prevent  their  growth  we  keep  foods  in  a  dry,  cool,  and  dark 
place. 

Selection.  —  The  cellulose  in  old  roots  and  tubers  is 
tough  and  woody,  and  they  require  a  much  longer  time  for 
cooking  than  the  young,  tender  ones.  They  also  have  lower 
food  value.  Large  roots  have  a  coarser  texture  also. 

Preparation.  —  Roots  and  tubers  should  be  washed  clean, 
and  pared  as  thin  as  possible  to  prevent  the  loss  of  nutrients. 
They  should  be  cooked  whole,  when  possible,  for  the  same 
reason.  If  a  small  quantity  of  water  is  used  in  cooking, 
there  is  less  nutrient  lost  than  when  a  large  quantity  is 
used.  Because  roots  and  tubers  contain  starch  and  cel- 
lulose, they  cannot  be  served  raw,  but  need  enough  cooking 


I44  ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 

to  soften  the  cellulose  and  free  the  starch  from  its  covering 
and  cook  it. 

During  cooking,  vegetables  undergo  certain  changes. 
The  starch  is  gelatinized,  the  cellulose  is  softened,  and  the 
protein  is  coagulated.  Flavors  are  developed  and  the  oil 
is  volatilized  and  escapes  in  the  steam.  Because  of  this 
fact,  vegetables  with  strong  flavor  may  be  cooked  in  a  larger 
quantity  of  water,  of  this  water  may  be  changed  during 
cooking,  and  the  flavor  will  be  milder.  If  the  cover  is  left 
off  during  the  cooking,  the  odor  is  not  so  strong  because  it 
escapes  gradually.  Some  vegetables  seem  to  retain  their 
color  better  when  cooked  uncovered.  Mineral  matter, 
some  starch,  and  other  substances  are  lost  when  food  is 
cooked  in  water.  There  is  practically  no  loss  when  they 
are  steamed. 

Place  in  the  Diet.  —  Succulent  roots  and  tubers  and 
green  vegetables  together  furnish  but  6|  per  cent  of  the 
average  American  diet.  It  would  seem  that  with  a  more 
careful  study  of  their  low  cost,  wide  distribution,  ease  of 
preparation,  the  variety  they  add  to  the  diet,  their  impor- 
tance as  a  source  of  mineral  salts  and  cellulose  for  the  body, 
they  could  be  used  more  extensively. 


CHAPTER  V 
GREEN    VEGETABLES   AND    FRUITS 

VEGETABLES  have  the  nourishment  which  we  take  from 
them  stored  in  different  parts  to  supply  food  for  the  plant 
when  it  shall  germinate.  The  greatest  amount  of  this  nu- 
trition is  stored  in  the  seed,  and  the  cereals  and  legumes, 
being  the  seeds  of  the  grains  and  leguminous  plants,  contain 
considerable  nutrition.  Roots  and  tubers  are  also  store- 
houses of  nourishment,  and  they  contain  a  large  amount 
of  carbohydrate  in  the  form  of  starch  or  sugar.  The 
leaves  are  the  means  by  which  the  plant  takes  in  car- 
ton dioxide  and  gives  out  oxygen,  and  they  contain  very 
little  nourishment,  their  bulk  being  due  to  the  cellulose. 
In  green  vegetables,  which  are  chiefly  the  leaves  and  stems 
of  plants,  we  expect  to  find  little  nourishment.  The  green 
vegetables  with  which  we  are  most  familiar  are  asparagus, 
celery,  cress,  endive,  cucumbers,  squash,  lettuce,  spinach,  and 
tomatoes. 

COMPOSITION  OF  GREEN  VEGETABLES 


FOOD 

REFUSE 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Cabbage     . 

15-5 

77-7 

1.4 

.2 

4.8 

•9 

Celery    .     . 

20. 

75-6 

•9 

.1 

2.6 

.8 

Cucumbers 

IS- 

81.1 

•7 

.2 

2.6 

•4 

Lettuce 

IS- 

80.5 

I.O 

.2 

2.5 

.8 

Spinach 

92.3 

2.1 

•3 

3-2 

2.1 

Tomatoes  . 



94-3 

•9 

•4 

3-9 

.6 

CONLEY,  N.  &  D.  —  IO 


145 


146  GREEN  VEGETABLES   AND   FRUITS 

Composition  and  Uses. —  Green  vegetables  contain  .7-2.1 
per  cent  protein;  .i--3  per  cent  fat;  2.5-4.8  per  cent 
carbohydrate,  chiefly  cellulose;  .4-2.1  per  cent  mineral 
matter.  The  fuel  value  of  any  of  them  scarcely  exceeds 
100  calories  per  pound.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  they  are  valu- 
able foods,  for  they  contain  a  high  percentage  of  base-form- 
ing elements  and  tend  to  keep  the  blood  alkaline  and  to 
lower  the  acidity  of  the  urine.  Spinach,  dandelion  greens, 
cabbage,  lettuce,  and  asparagus  contain  considerable  iron. 
The  carbohydrate  in  green  vegetables  is  principally  cel- 
lulose, and  as  there  is  little  or  no  nutrient  mixed  with  it, 
the  main  purpose  in  eating  it  is  to  furnish  bulk  for  the 
intestines  to  act  on. 

Place  in  Diet.  —  With  few  exceptions,  green  vegetables 
should  be  eaten  raw,  because  mineral  matter  is  lost  in  water 
in  which  they  are  cooked  and  because  the  cellulose  serves 
its  purposes  best  in  a  crisp  form.  When  green  vegetables 
are  eaten  fresh,  as  they  should  be,  with  salad  oil  added, 
they  form  an  agreeable  addition  to  a  meal.  Except  in  the 
country  where  they  are  raised,  they  are  not  a  cheap  food 
and  are  extremely  perishable,  and  when  stale  are  of  little 
use,  as  their  attractiveness  depends  on  crispness.  When- 
ever it  is  possible,  they  should  be  added  to  the  meal,  because 
of  their  effect  on  the  fluids  of  the  body  in  counteracting 
acidity,  and  because  they  furnish  mineral  matter  needed 
for  other  purposes. 

Green  vegetables  differ  from  all  other  classes  of  foods 
in  that  they  cannot  be  called  either  tissue-building  or  heat 
and  energy  yielding  foods,  for  it  would  hardly  be  possible 
to  eat  one  pound  of  them  at  a  meal  and  even  a  pound  will 
not  yield  100  calories  of  heat.  They  show  that  foods  are 
needed  for  other  purposes,  for  they  furnish  mineral  matter 


GREEN   VEGETABLES   AND   FRUITS  147 

and  cellulose,  both  absolutely  necessary  to  keep  the  body 
in  health. 

Fruits.  —  Green  vegetables  and  fruits  are  frequently 
considered  together  when  calculating  their  place  in  the 
diet.  Some  fruits  are  classed  with  green  vegetables  because 
they  are  served  as  such,  as  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  and 
squash.  Some  fruits,  like  nuts,  have  so  high  a  nutritive 
value  that  they  are  classed  separately. 

Fruits  differ  greatly  in  nutritive  value.  Some,  like  ba- 
nanas, figs,  olives,  plums,  prunes,  and  grapes,  have  as  high 
a  fuel  value  as  the  cereals.  Muskmelons,  watermelons, 
peaches,  and  pears  have  nearly  as  low  a  fuel  value  as  the 
green  vegetables. 

Composition.  —  All  fruits  are  alike,  however,  in  that  they 
contain  scarcely  any  protein.  All  but  olives  have  only  a 
trace  of  fat;  they  all  contain  vegetable  acids,  mineral 
matter,  and  as  much  carbohydrate  as  the  roots  and  tubers. 

The  nutritive  value  of  fruits  depends  on  the  acids,  which 
decompose  in  the  body,  forming  alkaline  carbonates  and 
thus  help  to  keep  the  blood  alkaline  and  lower  the  acidity 
of  the  urine ;  it  depends  also  on  the  mineral  matter,  and  on 
the  carbohydrates. 

The  carbohydrates  in  fruits  are  in  the  form  of  sugars,  - 
cane,  grape,  fruit,  — "  pectin  bodies/'  and  cellulose.     From 
the  table  showing  the  composition  of  fruits,  it  will  be  seen 
that  they  contain  considerable  cellulose,  and  to  this  and  the 
mineral  salts  fruits  owe  their  laxative  properties. 

In  some  unripe  fruit,  the  carbohydrate  is  mainly  starch 
and  cellulose,  and  during  ripening  the  acids  and  ferments 
change  them  to  sugars.  For  this  reason  bananas,  which 
contain  a  great  deal  of  starch  as  they  are  usually  marketed, 
are  hard  to  digest.  They  should  not  be  eaten  until  the 


148  GREEN  VEGETABLES  AND   FRUITS 

skins  begin  to  turn  black,  or  they  should  be  served  cooked. 
Many  fruits  contain  a  carbohydrate  called  pectose  or  pectin, 
which  gives  to  the  juice  its  gelatinizing  power.  It  occurs 
in  greatest  abundance  just  before  the  fruit  is  ripe,  or  when 
ripe,  and  disappears  as  the  fruit  becomes  overripe.  It 
seems  to  be  most  abundant  in  the  skin  and  around  the  core. 
Apples,  currants,  grapes,  plums,  and  cranberries  contain 
more  of  it  than  the  other  fruits.  For  this  reason  they  make 
the  best  jelly. 

Preservation.  —  Certain  oxidizing  agents,  as  ferments, 
present  in  fruit,  act  on  substances  in  it,  so,  when  it  is  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  cut  fruit  turns  black ;  for  the  same  reason 
bruised  fruit  discolors.  Fruits  are  not  attacked  by  bac- 
teria because  they  are  too  acid,  but  molds  thrive  well  on 
them.  The  method  of  packing  lemons,  oranges,  and 
grapes,  so  as  to  keep  them  dry  and  prevent  the  growth  of 
molds,  is  finding  favor  with  apple  growers.  If  fruits  are 
carefully  picked,  so  that  they  will  have  no  bruised  spots, 
and  then  wrapped  in  paper  to  keep  them  dry,  their  keeping 
qualities  are  enhanced  500  per  cent. 

Food  Values  and  Uses  of  Fruit.  —  Although  the  modern 
methods  of  shipping,  packing,  and  raising  fruits  have 
lowered  the  prices  so  that  nearly  all  people  can  purchase 
them  in  season,  fruits  are  not  a  cheap  food.  They  have 
almost  a  medicinal  value  in  the  diet,  and  it  is  to  be  deplored 
that  those  who  are  able  to  purchase  them  do  not  make  even 
greater  use  of  them.  They  furnish  3.8  per  cent  of  the  aver- 
age American  diet ;  and  if  more  were  used,  they  would  lower 
the  amount  of  medicine  consumed. 

Place  in  the  Diet.  —  It  should  be  remembered  that  if 
patent  flour  is  used  in  the  home,  fruits  and  green  vegetables 
must  be  served  in  abundance,  to  supply  the  needed  mineral 


GREEN   VEGETABLES  AND   FRUITS  149 

salts  and  counteract  the  tendency  to  rheumatism,  and  uric 
acid  formation  in  the  blood  and  tissues.  Fruits  contain 
from  i  to  7  per  cent  vegetable  acids  and  less  than  i  per  cent 
mineral  matter  in  the  form  of  phosphorus,  lime,  iron,  and 
potassium  salts,  and  together  they  have  a  great  effect  on 
controlling  acidity  in  blood,  tissues,  and  excretions.  Be- 
cause of  the  great  amount  of  water,  cellulose,  and  mineral 
matter  they  aid  the  large  intestine  to  rid  the  system  of 
waste.  In  addition  to  this,  they  have  a  food  value  equal 
to  roots  and  tubers,  are  relished  by  every  one,  and  add 
variety  to  the  diet. 

Nuts.  —  Nuts  do  not  furnish  any  great  part  in  the  Amer- 
ican diet,  .  i  per  cent  of  the  fat  being  the  only  figure  given 
in  the  dietary  studies.  They  are  used  principally  in  confec- 
tionery, and  though  much  is  heard  of  the  desirability  of  a 
diet  of  fruit  and  nuts,  only  a  few  people  seem  to  care  to 
try  it,  probably  because  such  a  diet  would  lack  savor. 
Nuts  are  a  concentrated  food,  and  not  easily  digested. 
They  escape  mastication,  and  the  vegetable  fat  is  hard  to 
digest.  It  would  seem  that  if  it  were  not  for  the  digestive 
disturbances  which  they  cause  if  eaten  in  quantity,  they 
would  find  a  place  in  the  diet.  When  a  food  so  attractive, 
plentiful,  and  well  liked  as  nuts,  has  found  so  small  a  place 
in  the  diet,  it  must  be  because  they  do  not  agree  with  the 
average  person.  As  in  other  things,  use  is  a  good  guide  to 
determine  the  value  of  a  food. 


150  GREEN  VEGETABLES  AND   FRUITS 

COMPOSITION  or  FRUITS 


KIND  OF  FRUIT 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

CELLU- 
LOSE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

;Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Apples    .... 

84.6 

•4 

•  5 

J3- 

1.2 

•3 

Apricots      .     .     . 

85. 

I.I 

134 

•  5 

Bananas      .     .     . 

75-3 

J-3 

.6 

21. 

I. 

.8  - 

Blackberries    .     . 

86.3 

i.3 

I. 

8.4 

2-5 

•  5 

Cherries      .     .     . 

80.9 

i. 

.8 

16.5 

.2 

.6 

Cranberries      .     . 

88.9 

•4 

.6 

8-4 

1.4 

I-5  — 

Currants     .     .     . 

85- 

12.8 

•7  - 

Grapes   .... 

77-4 

x-3 

1.6 

14.9 

4-3 

•5 

Lemons       .     .     . 

89-3 

i. 

•  7 

7-4 

I.I 

•  5 

Muskmelons    .     . 

89-5 

.6 

7.2 

2.1 

.6 

Olives     .... 

67.0 

2-5 

17.1 

5-7 

3-3 

4-4 

Oranges      .     .     . 

86.9 

.8 

.2 

n.6 

•5 

Peaches       .     .     . 

894 

•7 

.1 

5-8 

3.6 

•4 

Pears      .... 

80.9 

i. 

•  5 

•4 

Pineapples       .     . 

89.3 

•4 

•3 

9-3 

•4 

•3 

Plums     .... 

78.4 

i. 

20.  i 

•  5 

Raspberries,  red  . 

85-8 

i. 

9-7 

2.9 

.6 

Raspberries,  black 

84.1 

1.7 

i. 

12.6 

.6 

Strawberries    .     . 

90.4 

i. 

.6 

6. 

1.4 

.6 

Watermelons  .     . 

92.4 

•4 

.2 

6-7 

•3 

COMPOSITION  OF  DRIED  FRUITS 


KIND  OF  FRUIT 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

CELLU- 
LOSE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Apples  .... 

26.1 

1.6 

2.2 

62. 

6.1 

2.O 

Apricots     . 

29.4 

4-7 

I. 

62.5 

.  . 

2.4 

Citrons 

19. 

•5 

1.5 

78.1 

.  . 

•9 

Dates    .... 

IS4 

2.1 

2.8 

74.6 

3-8 

1-3 

Figs      .... 

18.8 

4-3 

•3 

68. 

6.2 

2.4 

Pears    .... 

16.6 

2.8 

5-4 

66. 

6.9 

2.4 

Prunes  .... 

22.3 

2.1 

71.2 

2.1 

2-3 

Raisins 

14.6 

2.6 

3-3 

73.6 

2.5 

3-4 

Currants    .     .     . 

17-2 

2.4 

i-7 

71.2 

3. 

4-5 

GREEN  VEGETABLES  AND  FRUITS 

COMPOSITION  OF  NUTS 


WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

CELLU- 
LOSE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Almonds    . 

4-5 

21. 

54-9 

17-3 

2. 

2. 

Hickory  nuts 

3-7 

154 

67.4 

II.4 

,  . 

2.1 

Pecans  .... 

2.7 

9.6 

70-5 

IS.3 

.  . 

1.9 

Walnuts     .     .     . 

2-5 

18.4 

64.4 

13- 

1.4 

i-7 

CHAPTER  VI 
BEVERAGES  AND   CONDIMENTS 

Beverages.  —  Tea  and  coffee,  the  two  common  bever- 
ages, are  alike  in  several  respects.  They  have  no  food 
value  except  in  the  cream  and  sugar  sometimes  added  in 
serving,  and  both  contain  volatile  oils  to  which  they  owe 
their  flavor  and  aroma  and  which  stimulate  peristalsis ;  both 
contain  alkaloids  that  are  stimulants,  and  that  act  directly 
on  the  heart,  nerves,  and  brain.  They  are  injurious  in  the 
same  way  that  all  other  stimulants  are  injurious,  because 
brain,  nerves,  and  heart  have  normal  action,  and  any- 
thing that  accelerates  or  disturbs  that  action  deranges  the 
nervous  system.  The  action  may  be  slight,  or  it  may  be 
marked,  but  there  is  always  some  effect.  During  sickness 
or  in  emergencies,  the  heart  or  brain  may  need  stimulants, 
but  in  health,  especially  in  childhood  and  youth,  while 
the  body  is  growing  and  developing,  the  nervous  system 
should  not  be  unduly  stimulated. 

Tea  consists  of  the  leaves  of  a  plant  grown  most  exten- 
sively in  China,  Japan,  and  India.  There  are  two  varie- 
ties, and  many  grades  of  tea,  and  all  may  be  produced  from 
the  same  plant.  The  two  varieties,  green  and  black  tea, 
owe  their  differences  in  color,  flavor,  and  aroma  to  the 
methods  of  drying  and  curing.  Green  teas  are  roasted 
for  about  five  minutes,  then  rolled  and  dried,  the  whole 
process  taking  about  one  hour.  Black  teas  are  spread 

152 


BEVERAGES   AND   CONDIMENTS  153 

in  the  open  air,  and  when  partially  dried,  are  rolled  and 
allowed  to  ferment  during  the  slow  drying  process  which 
follows.  The  slow  drying  develops  flavor  and  color. 
Some  teas  are  flavored  by  mixing  flowers  with  thejn  while 
drying,  as  the  Orange  Pekoe  brand.  The  buds  and  small 
leaves  produce  the  choicest  varieties  of  tea. 

Coffee  is  the  seed  or  berry  of  a  tropical  plant.  The  dif- 
ferent brands  or  varieties  in  the  market  have  taken  their 
names  from  the  countries  or  cities  from  which  they  were 
first  exported.  The  names  Mocha,  Java,  and  Rio  no 
longer  mean  that  those  brands  are  produced  and  manu- 
factured in  the  places  indicated  by  their  names,  for  most 
of  the  coffee  comes  from  South  America,  largely  from  Brazil. 

The  differences  in  flavor  and  aroma  are  due  to  two  rea- 
sons. The  length  of  time  that  the  berries  are  roasted 
produces  a  difference  in  color,  —  some  being  roasted  to  a 
reddish  brown,  some  to  a  dark  brown ;  this  affects  flavor. 
Some  berries  are  picked  green,  some  are  gathered  when  they 
have  turned  red,  some  are  left  until  they  are  purple  or  ripe. 
The  stage  of  maturity  at  which  they  are  gathered  also 
affects  flavor,  and  by  the  variation  in  time  of  gathering 
and  methods  of  roasting,  the  different  grades  are  pro- 
duced. 

Chocolate  and  Cocoa.  —  Unlike  tea  and  coffee,  chocolate 
and  cocoa  are  foods  and  have  high  nutritive  value.  Like 
tea  and  coffee,  they  contain  a  milk  alkaloid  which  has  a 
slight  stimulating  effect  on  the  nervous  system. 

A  tropical  tree,  called  the  cacao  tree,  produces  seeds 
from  which  chocolate  and  cocoa  are  manufactured.  The 
seeds  are  called  cocoa  beans,  and,  when  roasted  and  freed 
from  the  outside  hull  or  covering,  are  the  cocoa  nibs  of 
commerce. 


154 


BEVERAGES  AND   CONDIMENTS 


The  cocoa  nibs  are  broken,  and  then  ground  fine  and 
thus  the  unsweetened  chocolate  of  trade  is  made.  The 
sweetened  brands  have  sugar,  and  sometimes  flavor,  added. 

Cocoa  is  manufactured  by  depriving  the  ground  choco- 
late of  some  of  its  fat.  The  fat  that  is  removed  is  called 
cocoa  butter  and  is  used  in  medicine  and  drugs,  and,  to 
some  extent,  in  cooking  and  in  confectionery. 

Food  Value  of  Chocolate  and  Cocoa.  —  It  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  table  that  both  chocolate  and  cocoa 
have  a  high  food  value  and  rank  with  the  concentrated 

foods : 

COMPOSITION  OF  CHOCOLATE  AND  COCOA 


FOOD 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

MINERAL 
MATIER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Chocolate 
Cocoa 

5-9 
4.6 

12.9 
21.6 

48.7 
28.9 

30.3 
37-7 

2.2 
7.2 

Chocolate  contains  a  high  percentage  of  fat,  and  this 
being  vegetable  fat,  it  is  harder  to  digest  than  animal  fat. 
Unless  mixed  or  eaten  with  a  protein  food  it  makes  a 
poorly  balanced  product;  and  when  manufactured  into 
chocolate  creams  or  candy  more  carbohydrate  is  added, 
which  further  increases  the  high  fuel  value. 

It  does  not  seem  possible  that  a  normal  digestive  appa- 
ratus can  take  care  of  the  quantities  of  chocolate  creams 
that  some  individuals  consume.  The  test,  probably  never 
applied,  is  whether  that  consumer  has  normal  health, 
vitality,  and  resistant  power,  or  is  subject  to  digestive  dis- 
orders attributed  to  other  causes.  Over  consumption  of 
sugar  and  candy  is  an  excess  and  is  as  much  a  menace  to 
health  as  are  other  excesses.  It  leads  to  loss  of  appetite 


BEVERAGES  AND   CONDIMENTS  155 

for  wholesome  foods,  eating  at  irregular  times,  formation 
of  acids  in  the  stomach,  indigestion,  and  other  ills. 

The  subject  of  candy  is  discussed  in  connection  with 
chocolate  because  chocolate  creams  are  consumed  to  so 
great  an  extent  and  are  harder  to  digest  than  most  candies. 
The  man  working  out  of  doors  or  the  mountain  climber 
may  be  able  to  digest  a  pound  of  creams  with  no  great 
difficulty,  but  the  delicate  girl,  who  cannot  digest  meat  and 
vegetables,  must  possess  a  specially  designed  digestive 
apparatus  to  do  so  and  maintain  health. 

Chocolate  is  a  nutritious  and  wholesome  food,  if  used  in 
moderation.  It  makes  a  very  nutritious  and  appetizing  bev- 
erage ;  and,  if  made  with  skim  milk,  the  protein  content  can 
be  raised  so  that  it  will  form  a  balanced  food.  The  fat  in 
cocoa  is  usually  treated  so  that  it  is  emulsified  more  readily 
than  that  in  chocolate  and  is  more  easily  digested.  In  the 
manufacturing  of  cocoa  nearly  50  per  cent  of  the  fat  is 
removed.  Cocoa  is  a  protein  food,  having  a  nutritive  ratio 
of  i :  4. 

Condiments  are  aromatic  substances  that  are  added  to 
foods  to  furnish  flavor  and  that  stimulate  the  lining  of  the 
stomach  and  increase  the  flow  of  the  digestive  juice.  They 
have  practically  no  food  value,  and  in  most  cases,  their 
flavor  is  due  to  the  presence  of  volatile  oils  that  can  be 
extracted  and  that  are  sold  for  medicinal  purposes,  as 
oil  of  cloves,  oil  of  mustard,  etc.  The  condiments  in  com- 
mon use  are  cinnamon,  cloves,  ginger,  mustard,  pepper, 
allspice,  nutmeg.  Many  aromatic  herbs,  as  sage,  mint,  dill, 
and  parsley,  are  used  as  condiments. 


CHAPTER   VII 


ANIMAL    FOODS 

ANIMAL  foods  are  classified  as :  — 

1.  Meats,  which  include  poultry  and  game. 

2.  Fish,  which  include  shellfish. 

3.  Animal  products,  which  include  eggs,  milk,  butter, 
and  cheese. 

The  rank  and  importance  of  the  different  animal  foods, 
according  to  use,  may  be  judged  from  the  following  table 
compiled  from  the  dietary  studies. 

USE  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMAL  FOODS 


FOOD 

TOTAL  FOOD 
MATERIAL  USED 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Beef  and  veal     .     . 

7.2 

I6.7 

13.2 

Pork  and  lard     .     . 

7.2 

9-3 

42.1 

.  . 

Lamb  and  mutton  . 

•9 

2.1 

2.6 

.  . 

Poultry     .... 

•7 

1.6 

•9 

Fish 

i  8 

•2     C 

I.O 

Eggs     

2.1 

4.1 

2.9 

.  . 

Milk  and  cream 

I6.5 

8.7 

8.0 

3-6 

Butter       .... 

1.6 

•3 

16.6 

.  . 

Cheese       .... 

•3 

I.O 

i.i 

•  • 

Milk  furnishes  the  greatest  proportion  of  the  total  food 
material ;  beef,  the  greatest  amount  of  protein ;  pork,  the 
greatest  amount  of  fat.  Beef  and  milk  furnish  the  great- 

156 


ANIMAL   FOODS 


157 


est  amount  of  animal  protein  and  are  the  two  most  impor- 
tant animal  foods.  Wheat  is  more  important  as  a  source 
of  protein,  however,  than  either,  or  than  both  together,  for 
it  furnishes  28.5  per  cent  of  all  protein  used. 

COMPOSITION  OF  MEATS 


COMPOSITION  OF 
MEAT 

REFUSE 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

BEEF,  FRESH 

Chuck,  ribs    . 

I6.3 

52.6 

15 

14-3 

.  . 

.6 

Loin,  medium 

13-3 

52.5 

15.6 

16.6 

.  . 

•  7 

Ribs      .     .     . 

20.8 

43-8 

13-5 

2O. 

•5 

Round,      me- 

dium .     .     . 

7.2 

60.7 

18.4 

12.2 

.  . 

.8 

Shoulder    and 

clod  .     .     . 

16.4 

56.8 

15.9 

9-3 

.  . 

•7 

BEEF,        DRIED 

AND  SMOKED 

4-7 

53-7 

25-6 

6.6 

.  . 

5-5 

VEAL: 

Cutlets,  round 

3-4 

68.3 

19-5 

7-i 

.  . 

.8 

Leg       ... 

14.2 

60.  i 

15 

7-5 

.  . 

•7 

MUTTON  : 

Leg       ... 

18.4 

51.2 

14.6 

14. 

.  . 

.6 

Loin      .     .     . 

16. 

42. 

I3-I 

26.9 

.  . 

•5 

PORK,  FRESH: 

Loin  chops     . 

19.7 

41.8 

13- 

23- 

. 

.6 

Ham     .     .     . 

10.7 

48. 

I3-I 

24.6 

.  . 

•6 

PORK,      SALTED 

\ 

AND  SMOKED 

Bacon   .     .     . 

7-7 

17.4 

8.8 

59-i 

3-1 

Ham     .     .     . 

13-6 

34-8 

13-8 

31-7 

3-2 

Salt,  fat     .     . 

7-9 

1.8 

81.9 

.  . 

2.9 

POULTRY  : 

Fowl     .     .     . 

25-9 

47.1 

13-3 

11.7 

•  5 

Turkey      .     . 

22.7 

42.4 

15-6 

17-5 

.6 

Similarities  and  Differences.  —  Meats,  which  include 
beef,  veal,  mutton,  lamb,  pork,  venison,  poultry,  and 
game,  are  similar  in  structure,  composition,  nutritive 


158  ANIMAL  FOODS 

value,  and  digestibility.  In  fact,  the  different  meats  vary 
less  in  these  factors,  than  do  the  different  cuts  of  the  same 
animal.  There  are  the  following  differences,  however : 
The  meat  of  a  young  animal  contains  more  bone  in  propor- 
tion to  flesh  and  has  more  refuse  than  the  meat  of  an  older 
animal.  The  flesh  of  young  animals  contains  more  water, 
veal  and  lamb  containing  more  water  than  beef  and  mut- 
ton. The  older  animals  have  more  fat,  the  fat  taking  the 
place  of  the  water  in  the  younger  animal.  The  amount 
of  protein  is  practically  the  same  in  all.  The  kind  of  pro- 
tein varies,  young  animals  being  rich  in  albuminoids,  old 
animals  having  more  nitrogenous  extractives.  Fat  meats 
are  harder  to  digest  than  the  lean  meats,  because  the  fat 
interferes  with  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  on  the  pro- 
tein. Meats  with  close  fibers  are  harder  to  digest  than  those 
with  loose  fibers,  because  the  digestive  juices  cannot  pene- 
trate them  readily. 

Meats  contain  a  certain  amount  of  refuse,  which  consists 
of  bone,  fat,  and  skin,  and  which  is  usually  trimmed  off 
at  the  market.  The  amount  varies  from  3.4  per  cent  in 
veal  cutlets  to  25.9  per  cent  in  fowl.  It  averages  about 
17  per  cent  in  beef,  mutton,  and  pork.  As  the  part  con- 
sidered refuse  is  usually  trimmed  off  after  the  meat  is 
weighed,  its  loss  increases  the  cost  of  the  edible  portion. 
The  amount  of  water  in  meat  varies  from  42  per  cent  to 
68  per  cent,  being  greatest  in  young  animals. 

The  amount  of  fat  in  any  cut  of  meat  as  it  is  prepared  for 
serving  cannot  easily  be  calculated.  Some  fat  is  always 
trimmed  off  at  the  market,  some  is  trimmed  off  before 
cooking,  a  considerable  quantity  is  lost,  during  cooking,  and 
each  individual  leaves  some  on  the  plate,  the  amount  left 
depending  on  the  taste.  An  example  of  this  loss  may  be 


ANIMAL  FOODS  159 

given:  A  pork  loin  roast  was  purchased  at  the  market 
already  trimmed  for  sale.  It  then  weighed  3^  pounds. 
Some  extra  fat  was  removed,  and  when  it  was  prepared  for 
roasting  it  weighed  3  pounds.  When  removed  from  the 
oven  it  weighed  2  pounds  i  ounce,  and  of  that  amount  6 
ounces  were  bone.  The  loss  during  cooking  was  due  to 
evaporation  of  water  and  loss  of  fat.  A  rough  estimate 
would  show  that,  of  the  amount  purchased,  but  one  half 
was  available  for  nutrition.  The  loss  is  even  greater  in 
other  cuts  or  in  other  meats.  The  butcher  trims  the  pork, 
before  it  is  weighed,  more  closely  than  other  meats,  because 
the  fat  is  more  valuable  to  him.  The  protein  in  meat  va- 
ries from  13  per  cent  to  19  per  cent  in  the  different  cuts,  and 
constitutes  the  one  constant  factor.  In  fact  the  nutritive 
value  of  meat  may  be  said  to  depend  on  its  protein.  Meat 
contains  less  than  i  per  cent  mineral  matter  and  no  car- 
bohydrate. 

Structure.  —  Meat  consists  of  bone,  fat,  and  muscle. 
The  bone  of  meat  is  about  half  solids  and  half  water.  The 
solid  part  consists  of  mineral  matter,  chiefly  calcium  phos- 
phate, and  animal  matter,  which  is  chiefly  fat  and  ossein, 
-  a  form  of  albuminoids.  The  fat  and  ossein  can  be 
extracted  by  long  boiling  or  by  burning,  and  the  mineral 
matter  remains. 

The  fat  is  stored  in  cell -walls  of  connective  tissue.  In 
the  animal  it  occurs  around  the  internal  organs,  between 
the  muscle  fibers,  and  under  the  skin.  It  is  harder  in  some 
animals  than  in  others,  depending  on  the  proportion  of 
olein  and  stearin  in  the  fat.  Pork  fat  has  more  olein  than 
mutton  and  is  softer  for  that  reason. 

Muscle  fiber  consists  of  bundles  of  fibers  or  hollow  tubes 
bound  together  by  connective  tissue  with  more  or  less  fat 


i6o  ANIMAL  FOODS 

interspersed  between  the  fibers.  The  connective  tissue 
and  the  tubes  are  composed  of  collagen  and  elastin, 
forms  of  connective  tissue,  and  they  can  be  dissolved  by 
boiling.  The  tubes  contain  various  proteins,  albumins, 
globulins,  and  compound  proteins  which  are  in  most 
cases  coagulated  by  heat,  also  nitrogenous  extractives 
and  water. 

The  single  muscle  tubes,  freed  from  fat  and  connective 
tissue,  are  the  tissue-building  part  of  the  meat  and  for  that 
reason  the  most  important.  They  are  composed  of  75.5 
per  cent  water,  and  24.5  per  cent  solids,  which  consist  of 
myosin,  albumin,  collagen,  extractives,  salts,  traces  of  fat 
and  glycogen,  and  compound  proteins.  Myosin  is  the  chief 
protein  in  meat  and  forms  7-8  per  cent  of  it.  The  extrac- 
tives vary  in  amount,  more  being  present  in  red  meat  than 
in  light-colored.  They  give  to  meat  its  characteristic 
flavor.  Old  animals  have  more  than  young,  and  beef  has 
more  than  mutton. 

The  amount  of  connective  tissue,  which  binds  the  muscle 
fibers  together,  and  the  thickness  of  the  muscle  tubes  vary 
in  different  animals  and  in  different  cuts  of  the  same  animal. 
In  muscles  like  those  in  the  leg  and  neck,  that  are  much  used, 
they  are  very  strong  and  tough.  Along  the  backbone,  where 
the  muscles  are  not  exercised  much,  they  are  thin  and  easily 
softened. 

Digestibility.  —  If  raw  meat  could  be  served  in  an  ap- 
petizing way  and  if  there  were  no  possibility  that  it  con- 
tained microorganisms  injurious  to  health,  it  would  be 
more  easily  digested  than  cooked  meat,  because  the  coagu- 
lation of  the  protein  affects  its  digestibility.  Flavor  has 
much  to  do  with  appetite  and  digestibility,  however,  and 
cooking  brings  out  the  flavors,  so  that  a  palatable  meat 


ANIMAL  FOODS  161 

calls  out  more  digestive  juices  than  a  meat  lacking  in  flavor. 
Meat  is  not  always  free  from  parasites,  and  the  prevalence  of 
tuberculosis  and  other  diseases  among  cattle  makes  the 
precaution  of  cooking  necessary. 

As  meat  is  almost  wholly  protein,  its  digestion  takes  place 
in  the  stomach,  where  the  pepsin  changes  albumins  to  pep- 
tones. As  no  fat  is  digested  in  the  stomach,  the  amount 
of  fat  mixed  with  the  lean  meat  affects  the  ease  of  diges- 
tibility. The  fat  surrounds  the  protein  and  retards  stomach 
digestion. 

The  amount  of  connective  tissue,  regulating  as  it  does 
the  tenderness  or  toughness  of  the  meat,  is  also  a  factor  in 
determining  the  ease  or  quickness  of  digestion.  Very  little 
is  known,  however,  as  to  the  relative  digestibility  of  cer- 
tain meats.  It  is  said  that  beef  ranks  first,  mutton  second, 
veal  probably  third,  and  pork  last,  because  of  the  closeness 
of  its  fibers  and  because  it  contains  so  much  fat.  Absorp- 
tion of  meat  is  quite  complete,  its  coefficient  of  digestibility 
being  98  per  cent. 

Food  Value  and  Place  in  the  Diet.  —  Meat  is  the  chief 
and  the  most  important  tissue-building  food.  It  is  like  the 
human  body  in  structure  and  composition,  and  it  fully 
supplies  the  needs  of  the  tissues,  and  is  easily  and  thor- 
oughly digested  and  assimilated  when  taken  in  the  proper 
amounts.  Because  of  the  nitrogenous  extractives,  it  stimu- 
lates the  cells  so  that  people  who  eat  animal  food  seem  to 
have  a  more  vigorous  vitality  than  those  who  live  solely 
on  vegetable  foods. 

Meat  or  protein  goes  through  various  changes  in  the  body 
and  is  finally  broken  down  in  the  cells  into  water,  carbon 
dioxide,  and  the  nitrogenous  waste,  urea.  Urea  is  elimi- 
•nated  through  the  kidneys,  and  an  excess  of  protein  food 

CONLEY,  N.  &  D. —  II 


i62  ANIMAL  FOODS 

overworks  the  kidneys  in  their  effort  to  get  rid  of  the  ni- 
trogenous waste. 

Proteins  are  also  oxidized  to  yield  energy,  and  if  they  are 
taken  in  excess,  urea  and  other  decomposition  products  of 
protein  metabolism  overload  the  system.  The  danger  for 
the  average  person,  then,  is  that,  because  of  the  attractive- 
ness and  flavor  of  meat,  more  will  be  consumed  than  is 
needed  to  repair  tissue  waste,  and  harm  is  done.  For  the 
poor,  the  problem  is  how  to  secure  the  needed  protein  from 
the  sum  which  they  have  available  for  sustenance. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  meat  depends  on  the  amount  of 
fat.  This  is  a  difficult  thing  to  calculate,  because  much 
fat  is  trimmed  from  the  meat  and  thrown  away  as  waste, 
much  fat  is  lost  in  cooking,  and  much  is  left  unconsumed  on 
serving  platter  and  individual  plates.  From  the  same  cut 
of  meat,  one  individual  might  consume  twice  as  much  as 
another. 

While  the  relative  nutritive  value  varies  from  i :  J  to 
1:3,  the  absolute  nutritive  value  of  any  meat  depends  on 
the  amount  of  the  fat  eaten.  The  protein  is  a  fairly  con- 
stant quantity,  and  so  meat  will  always  rank  first  as  the 
chief  tissue-building  food. 

The  food  value  of  anything  depends  not  only  on  composi- 
tion and  digestibility,  but  also  on  the  cost.  Meat  is  ex- 
pensive food.  It  is  the  greatest  item  of  expense  in  the  die- 
tary and  the  first  thing  that  is  struck  out  when  economy  is 
necessary.  Even  the  cheaper  cuts  are  not  cheap,  when  we 
consider  the  time  and  fuel  needed  to  make  them  palatable 
and  appetizing.  Then,  too,  the  poorer  classes  are  ignorant 
of  ways  to  utilize  the  cheaper  cuts.  With  the  use  of  the 
fireless  cooker  the  items  of  time  and  fuel  in  preparation  are 
almost  eliminated.  It  does  not  seem  likely  that  meat  will. 


ANIMAL  FOODS  163 

become  cheaper,  because  it  is  a  question  of  supply  and 
and  demand.  Consumption  tends  to  overtake  production 
and  the  result  is  high-priced  foods.  The  solution  of  the 
problem  seems  to  be,  to  learn  how  to  utilize  the  cheaper 
cuts  of  meat,  to  make  use  of  cheese,  milk,  cereals,  and 
legumes  for  protein,  and  to  make  more  careful  studies  of 
bodily  requirements. 

The  place  of  meat  in  the  diet  is  to  supply  the  greater 
part  of  the  protein  needed  to  make  a  nutritive  ration  of 
i :  6|.  It  is  best  to  take  meat  at  one  meal  and  depend  on 
eggs,  cheese,  milk,  cereals,  and  legumes  to  supply  the  re- 
mainder of  the  protein  needed. 

BEEF 

Beef,  to  be  good,  must  come  from  a  healthy,  well  nour- 
ished animal.  In  good  beef  the  best  cuts  are  fine-grained, 
well  mottled  with  fat  and  lean,  and  bright  red  in  color  after 
being  exposed  to  the  air.  If  there  is  a  thick  layer  of  firm, 
light- colored  fat  over  the  loin  and  rib  cuts,  the  flesh  will  be 
juicier  and  better  flavored  than  when  there  is  little  or  no 
fat  over  these  cuts.  In  the  latter  case  what  fat  there  is, 
is  dark-colored,  and  the  meat  is  tough  and  dry.  The  animal 
is  old,  underfed,  or  losing  flesh. 

The  loin  and  rib  cuts  are  finer-grained  and  more  tender 
than  the  other  cuts  and  require  less  cooking.  They  are  the 
finest  cuts,  for  steaks  and  roasts.  The  other  cuts  are  not 
so  tender,  but  are  juicier,  and  some  of  them  contain  less  bone 
than  the  finer  cuts,  and  when  properly  cooked  are  as  well 
flavored  and  equal  to  the  loin  and  rib  cuts  in  palatability. 

The  less  tender  cuts  require  long,  slow  cooking  to  soften 
the  connective  tissue  and  for  this  reason  do  not  make  the 


164  ANIMAL  FOODS 

finest  steaks  and  roasts.  As  less  than  twenty-five  per  cent 
of  the  beef  is  contained  in  the  loin  and  rib  cuts,  they  sell 
for  a  much  higher  price  than  round,  chuck,  or  any  other 
cuts,  because  the  profit  must  come  from  the  finer  cuts. 
Many  people,  who  cannot  afford  it,  buy  these  expensive 
cuts,  because  they  do  not  know  how  to  cook  the  other  parts 
and  make  them  attractive  and  appetizing.-  The  Atwater 
tables  show  that  those  cheaper  cuts  are  just  as  nutritious 
as  the  others.  Some  of  them  contain  less  bone,  and  they 
are  much  cheaper,  and  when  properly  cooked,  are  deli- 
ciously  flavored  and  more  satisfactory  than  the  badly 
cooked  steak  or  dry  roast. 

Tough  and  Tender  Meats.  —  The  amount  of  connective 
tissue  in  a  cut  of  meat  determines  its  tenderness  and  tough- 
ness. The  acids  which  develop  in  meat  that  has  been  hung 
or  kept  for  a  long  time,  soften  the  connective  tissue  so  that 
meat  in  the  first  stage  of  decomposition  is  fairly  tender. 
If  meat  is  rubbed  with  oil  and  vinegar  and  allowed  to  stand 
over  night,  the  connective  tissue  is  also  softened. 

Long,  slow  cooking  in  water  at  or  just  above  the  simmer- 
ing point  also  softens  the  connective  tissue,  while  boiling 
dissolves  it.  For  this  reason  tough  cuts  of  meat  should 
have  long,  slow  cooking  to  make  them  tender. 

The  amount  of  fat  found  in  muscle  fiber  varies  greatly. 
Sometimes  it  is  wholly  absent.  It  has  been  found  that 
when  beef  cattle  are  fattened  for  slaughter,  the  fat  is  stored 
in  the  muscle  fiber,  making  a  tender  piece  of  meat.  When 
dairy  cattle  are  fattened,  very  little  of  the  fat  is  deposited 
in  the  muscle,  but  is  put  on  in  thick  layers  around  the 
internal  organs  and  under  the  skin.  Meat  with  some  fat 
between  the  muscle  fibers  is  more  tender  and  delicious  than 
the  drier  meat.  Very  few  people  realize  that  there  are  two 


Rib 


Loin 


Rump 


Round 


CUTS  OF  BEEF 


ANIMAL  FOODS 


kinds  of  cattle,  beef  cattle  and  dairy  cattle,  and  while  both 
are  used  as  meat,  the  beef  cattle  always  furnish  a  different 
meat  from  that  of  the  dairy  cattle. 

When  the  animal  is  slaughtered,  the  myosin,  the  chief 
protein  in  meat,  is  more  or  less  tender  though  insipid  in 
flavor.  After  24  hours  the  myosin  becomes  solid  and  what 
is  known  as  rigor  mortis  sets  in,  the  meat  becomes  tough 
and  remains  so  until  the  first  stage  of  decomposition  is 
reached,  when  the  developed  acids,  sarcolactic  acid  and  acid 
phosphate,  change  the  myosin  to  syntonin.  These  acids 
also  soften  the  connective  tissue  and  develop  flavor.  Meat 
should  hang  from  3  weeks  to  6  months,  depending  on  the 
storage  accommodation. 

COMPOSITION  OF  CUTS  OF  BEEF 
As  Purchased 


REFUSE 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Chuck  .... 

I6.3 

52-6 

15-5 

15.0 

.8 

Flank    .... 

IO.2 

54-0 

17.0 

19.0 

•7 

Loin      .... 

13-3 

52.5 

16.1 

17.5 

•9 

Porterhouse  . 

12.7 

52.4 

I9.I 

17.9 

.8 

Sirloin  .... 

12.8 

54-0 

I6.5 

16.1 

•9 

Neck     .... 

27.6 

45-9 

14-5 

11.9 

•7 

Ribs      .... 

20.8 

43-8 

13-9 

21.2 

•7 

Round  .... 

7.2 

60.7 

19.0 

12.8 

I.O 

Rump  .... 

20.7 

45-o 

13-8 

2O.2 

•7 

Shank  fore     .    . 

36.9 

42.9 

12.8 

7-3 

.6 

Shoulder  and 

clod       .     .     . 

16.4 

56.8 

16.4 

9.8 

.  . 

•9 

Fore  quarter 

18.7 

49.1 

14.5 

17-5 

•7 

Hind  quarter 

15.7 

50-4 

15.4 

18.3 

•  7 

i66  ANIMAL  FOODS 

Cutting  of  Beef.  —  Beef  is  sold  to  the  retail  dealer  cut  in 
halves,  and  the  halves  of  beef  are  then  divided  into  hind  and 
fore  quarters  by  cutting  between  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
ribs,  leaving  one  rib  in  the  hind  quarter.  The  flank  is  cut 
from  the  hind  quarter,  leaving  the  loin,  rump,  round,  and 
shank.  The  loin  includes  the  porterhouse,  sirloin,  and  ten- 
derloin cuts.  The  fore  quarter  is  cut  across  the  ribs.  The 
lower  part  includes  the  plate,  clod,  and  shank.  The  upper 
part  includes  the  rib,  chuck,  and  neck. 

Loin. --This  cut  includes  short  steaks,  porterhouse, 
sirloin,  and  tenderloin.  The  tenderloin  is  a  long  muscle 
that  may  be  stripped  from  beneath  the  loin,  but  when  it  is 
removed  it  destroys  the  value  of  the  porterhouse  steak. 
The  first  few  cuts  from  the  loin  are  called  short  or  club  steaks 
because  they  contain  no  tenderloin.  Steaks  cut  from  the 
beginning  of  the  tenderloin  to  the  hook  bone  are  called  por- 
terhouse. They  are  the  choicest  and  highest-priced  cuts 
in  the  beef.  The  remaining  cuts  in  the  loin  are  the 
sirloin. 

The  tenderloin,  when  sold  separately,  is  deficient  in  fat 
and  hence  must  be  larded  and  then  roasted  or  broiled. 
The  loin  is  cut  into  steaks  and  broiled,  occasionally  sold  as 
roasts,  though  more  expensive  than  the  rib  cuts  and  no 
finer  for  roasting. 

Rib.  —  This  cut  consists  of  seven  ribs,  called  prime  ribs. 
The  cut  is  made  close  to  the  shoulder  blade  and  separates 
it  from  the  chuck.  It  is  sold  as  roasts,  being  cut  into  one, 
two,  or  three  rib  pieces.  A  one  rib  piece  usually  weighs 
about  four  pounds.  The  ribs  are  removed  and  the  piece 
rolled  and  called  a  rolled  roast.  If  the  ribs  are  left  in,  it 
is  called  a  standing  roast.  Dealers  sometimes  remove  the 
ribs  from  the  cut  and  sell  it  as  steaks,  called  small  steaks. 


ANIMAL  FOODS  167 

Round.  --This  cut  consists  of  a  very  juicy,  lean  muscle 
and  but  little  bone.  It  is  sold  as  steaks,  roasts,  and 
for  beef  tea  and  beef  juice.  It  is  excellent  for  pot 
roast,  stews,  braizing,  and  casserole  of  beef,  and  for  beef 
loaf. 

Rump.  --This  cut  contains  the  end  of  the  hip  bone  and 
joint.  There  is  considerable  bone,  but  the  remainder  makes 
very  good  steaks  and  roasts.  It  is  also  excellent  for  pot 
roasts,  braizing,  stews,  and  mincemeat. 

Chuck.  —  This  cut  is  next  to  the  prime  ribs  and  similar 
to  it,  but  contains  more  bone  and  gristle  and  is  not  so  tender. 
It  makes  a  very  good,  though  large,  roast  and  is  sometimes 
sold  as  steaks  and  by  some  preferred  to  the  round,  because 
it  is  mottled  with  fat.  It  is  excellent  for  stews,  pot  roast, 
boiling,  braizing,  and  mincemeat. 

Clod.  —  This  cut  is  back  of  the  brisket  and  below  the 
chuck.  It  is  sold  for  boiling,  stews,  braizing,  and  mince- 
meat. 

Flank.  —  This  cut  comes  from  below  the  loin.  It  is 
boneless  and  coarse,  but  of  good  flavor.  Flank  steak  is 
sometimes  cut  from  the  lean  muscle  on  the  inside  of  the 
flank.  This  steak  may  be  scored  across  the  grain  and 
broiled.  It  is  also  rolled  and  braized.  Flank  cut  is  used 
for  stews  and  boiling,  and  is  rolled  and  corned. 

Neck. --This  cut  contains  juicy,  tough  meat.  It  is 
used  in  stews,  soup,  and  Hamburg  steaks. 

Plate.  —  This  cut  comes  from  below  the  ribs.  It  has 
layers  of  fat  and  lean  and  the  ends  of  the  ribs.  It  is  used 
for  boiling  and  corning. 

Shank.  -  -  These  cuts  are  the  fore  and  hind  legs.  They 
are  tough  and  contain  bone  and  tendons.  They  are  used 
for  soup  and  mincemeat. 


i68  ANIMAL   FOODS 

NITROGENOUS  FOODS  IN  MEAT 

1.  TRUE  PROTEIN. 
Albumin. 

Serum  in  blood,  muscle  in  muscle. 

Soluble  in  cold  water,  coagulates  at  about  160°  F. 
Globulin. 

Myosin,  myogen,  fibrin. 

Soluble  in  dilute  salt  and  alkali. 
Nucleoalbumin. 
Compound  proteins. 

Nucleoprotein,  chromoprotein. 

2.  ALBUMINOIDS. 
Ossein  in  bone. 

Collagen  in  connective  tissue. 
Elastin  in  tubes. 

Dissolved  by  moist  heat,  softened  by  acid. 

Hydrated  to  gelatin. 

3.  NITROGENOUS  EXTRACTIVES. 
Kreatin,  kreatenin,  etc. 

EFFECT  OF  HEAT    ON  MEAT 
Dry  Heat  (that  is,  heat  in  dry  air),    Coagulation  of  albumin. 


applied  to  tender  meat. 
Broiling,  Roasting. 

Moist  Heat  (that  is,  heat  in  moist 

air). 
Boiling,  Stewing. 


Cold  water  and  slow  heat, 
Soup  making. 


Retention  of  juices. 

Hardening  of  connective  tissue. 

Coagulation  of  albumin. 
Softening  of  connective  tissue. 
Retention  of  juices. 

Softening  and  dissolving  of  con- 
nective tissue. 

Extraction  of  juice  and  soluble 
proteins. 


Principles  Involved  in  the  Cooking  of  Meat.  —  While 
meats  may  be  cooked  in  many  ways,  there  are  but  three 
principles  involved  in  the  cooking  of  all  meats. 


ANIMAL  FOODS  169 

1.  Meat  may  be  first  subjected  to  heat  strong  enough 
to  coagulate  the  albumin ;    this  forms  a  crust  which  will 
retain  the  juices  in  the  meat.     The  meat  then  cooks  in  its 
own  juices;  and  if  this  is  continued  long  enough,  it  will 
soften  the  connective  tissue  also.     This  method  is  usually 
employed  in  broiling  and  roasting,  and  if  the  heat  is  too 
strong,  the  tendency  is  to  dry  the  meat. 

2.  Meat  may  be  cooked  in  water  at  temperature  170°- 
185°  F.  for  several  hours,  to  soften  the  collagen  and  elastin 
found  in  the  connective  tissue  and  cell  walls.     This  method 
is  applied  to  tough  meat  and  makes  it  tender.     If  it  is 
cooked  in  a  small  quantity  of  water,  it  is  called  a  pot  roast ; 
if  cut  into  smali  pieces,  it  is  a  stew ;  if  left  in  one  piece,  it 
is  called  boiled.     Meat  should  never  cook  in  boiling  water 
longer  than  10-15  minutes,  which  is  sufficient  to  sear  over 
the  outside,  because  boiling  dissolves  the  collagen  and  leaves 
the  meat  stringy,  while  simmering  softens  it.     The  fireless 
cooker  is  best  for  cooking  the  tougher  cuts  of  meat,  because 
the  temperature  is  below  212°  F.,  and  that  softens,  but  does 
not  dissolve,  the  albuminoids,  and  does  not  coagulate  the 
proteins  so  hard. 

3.  For  soups,  beef  tea,  beef  juice,  and  flavor,  the  object 
is  to  draw  out  the  extractives.     Meat  should  be  placed  in 
cold  water  and  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time  and  then 
gradually  heated  to  about  160°  F. ;  then  the  juice  is  pressed 
out  or  the  meat  is  soaked  for  several  hours,  depending  on  the 
use  to  which  it  is  to  be  put.     Cold  water  draws  out  the  blood 
which  contains  haemoglobin,  the   soluble  albumin  and  ex- 
tractives, —  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  nutritive  in- 
gredients in  meat.     Gradual  heating  dissolves  some  albu- 
minoids and  fat.     The  longer  this  is  continued,  the  more 
gelatin  and  fat  are  obtained. 


170  ANIMAL   FOODS 

An  important  reason  for  cooking  meat  is  to  kill  bacteria 
and  other  parasites  found  in  meat.  Some  kinds  of  meat 
are  more  liable  to  be  diseased  than  others.  Tuberculosis 
germs  may  attack  the  muscles  of  beef  and  other  animals. 
Pork  often  has  embedded  in  the  muscles  a  parasite,  trichina, 
which  produces  a  disease  often  fatal  to  human  beings. 
For  this  reason,  pork  should  be  thoroughly  cooked,  as 
cooking  kills  the  parasite. 

Diseased  meat  should  never  be  eaten  on  the  assumption 
that  cooking  kills  the  bacteria  and  renders  the  meat  harm- 
less. The  bacteria,  while  alive,  produce  toxins  and  de- 
composition products  that  act  as  poisons  to  the  system. 
This  is  called  ptomaine  poisoning,  and  also  occurs  in  cheese, 
ice  cream,  and  shellfish,  and  is  not  caused  by  bacteria  them- 
selves, but  by  the  products  of  bacterial  action  on  the  food ; 
and  no  cooking  can  destroy  them. 

Effect  of  Heat  on  Meat.  —  Dry  heat  coagulates  the  al- 
bumin on  the  outside  of  the  meat  and  forms  a  crust  which 
tends  to  retain  the  juices  and  flavor.  Moist  heat  softens 
and  dissolves  the  connective  tissue  which  forms  the  muscle 
tubes  and  holds  the  fibers  together.  Heat  softens  the  fat 
so  that  it  is  freed  from  its  albuminous  envelope  and  becomes 
liquid ;  meat  loses  much  fat  in  cooking.  Dry  heat  at  a  high 
temperature  decomposes  fat  and  liberates  irritating  sub- 
stances. By  the  shrinkage  of  the  muscle  fibers  meat  loses 
much  water  in  cooking.  Heat  develops  flavor.  It  causes 
a  loss  of  nitrogenous  extractives.  Low  heat  draws  out 
soluble  albumin,  extractives,  and  some  albuminoids. 

FISH 

Fish  are  usually  grouped  in  two  classes ;  fish  proper,  or 
vertebrates,  and  shellfish.  The  former  includes  all  the 


ANIMAL  FOODS  171 

common  sea,  lake,  river,  and  brook  fish,  as  salmon,  trout, 
mackerel,  whitefish,  etc. ;  the  latter  includes  oysters,  clams, 
lobsters,  shrimps,  etc. 

Fish  are  like  meat  in  composition,  structure,  and  nutri- 
tive value  and  may  be  substituted  for  it  in  the  diet.  They 
are  protein  foods.  Fish  proper  contain  no  carbohydrate, 
and  most  of  them  contain  very  little  fat.  Shellfish  contain 
some  carbohydrate.  In  oysters  it  is  in  the  form  of  glycogen. 

Even  when  dressed  for  market,  fish  contain  a  high  per- 
centage of  refuse,  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  and  for  that  reason 
cannot  be  called  cheap  foods.  They  are  never  plentiful 
except  in  seaport  towns  or  near  the  lakes  and  rivers  where 
they  abound,  and  they  are  extremely  perishable  and  must  be 
shipped  in  refrigerator  cars,  or  frozen,  or  preserved  in  some 
other  way.  The  commonest  methods  of  preservation  are 
salting,  smoking,  drying,  and  canning.  Many  fish  are 
preserved  in  oil.  For  these  reasons  the  price  of  fish  is 
never  very  low,  and  their  use  cannot  be  urged  except  to  add 
variety  to  the  diet  or  to  furnish  delicacies. 

Fish  contain  from  35  to  60  per  cent  water,  and  from  8  to 
1 6  per  cent  protein.  They  contain  less  extractives  than 
meat  and  more  albuminoids.  The  amount  of  fat  is  not 
very  great ;  those  containing  over  2  per  cent  fat  are  classed 
as  fat  fish,  those  containing  less  than  2  per  cent  as  lean  fish. 
The  fuel  value  of  one  pound  of  fish  is  about  one  third  that 
of  meat. 

Digestibility.  —  Fish  contain  but  a  small  amount  of 
extractives  when  compared  with  meat,  and  more  albumin- 
oids. The  connective  tissue  is  tender  and  easily  dissolved 
in  cooking,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  flesh  does  not 
fall  apart.  For  this  reason,  fish  are  seldom  boiled,  but 
are  baked,  broiled,  or  fried. 


172  ANIMAL  FOODS 

There  is  disagreement  among  authorities  on  the  subject 
of  the  digestibility  of  fish.  Some  contend  that,  because  of 
the  absence  of  extractives,  it  is  not  so  easily  digested  as 
meat,  because  the  extractives  call  out  the  digestive  juices 
and  aid  digestion.  Other  authorities  say  that  because  the 
muscle  fibers  are  tender  and  there  is  little  connective  tissue, 
it  is  more  easily  masticated  and  digested.  The  digesti- 
bility is  probably  the  same  as  of  meat. 

Because  of  the  closeness  of  the  muscle  fibers,  lobsters, 
clams,  and  shrimps  are  harder  to  digest  than  fish.  The 
danger  from  ptomaine  poisoning  is  greater  in  fish  than  in 
other  foods  because  they  decompose  so  quickly;  this  is 
especially  true  with  shellfish,  and,  when  possible,  they  should 
be  shipped  alive.  Many  cases  of  typhoid  fever  have  been 
traced  for  their  cause  to  the  consumption  of  raw  oysters. 
Oysters  live  near  the  shore;  and  if  rivers  carrying  contami- 
nated sewage  empty  their  water  into  the  bay  where  the 
oyster  beds  are  located,  typhoid  germs  may  be  found  in 
the  oysters. 


ANIMAL  FOODS  -     173 

COMPOSITION  OF  FRESH  FISH  DRESSED  FOR  MARKET 


REFUSE 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Black  bass    .     .     . 

46.7 

41.9 

10.3 

.5 

.6 

Cod     

2O.  O 

58.5 

10.6 

.2 

.8 

Mackerel.     .     .     . 

*  y.y 
40.7 

O^'J 

43-7 

11.4 

3-5 

•7 

Perch       .... 

54-6 

34-4 

8.7 

1.8 

•  5 

Pickerel   .  •.     .     . 

35-9 

5i-i 

11.9 

.2 

•9 

Pike    

20.  < 

cc.4 

17. 

.4. 

.7 

Salmon     .... 

O^'O 

23.8 

JD'*T 

51.2 

•••O* 
14.6 

T" 
9-5 

.  . 

•  / 
•9 

Trout,  brook     .     . 

37-9 

48.4 

II.7 

1-3 

•7 

Trout,  lake  .     .     . 

35-2 

45- 

12.4 

6.6 

.8 

Whitefish      .     .     . 

43-6 

39-4 

10.3 

3-6 

•9 

PRESERVED  FISH: 

Cod,  salt  .     .     . 

24.9 

40.2 

16. 

•4 

18.5 

(salt) 

Herring,  smoked 

444 

19.2 

20.5 

8.8 

74 

CANNED  FISH: 

Caviare     .     .     . 

.  . 

38.1 

30- 

19.7 

7.6 

4-6 

Salmon     ... 

63.5   ' 

21.8 

12.  1 

2.6 

Sardines    .     .     . 

5-0 

53-6 

23-7 

12.  1 

5-3 

SHELLFISH  : 

t  fr 

Oysters     .     .     . 

88.3 

6.0 

1-3 

3-3 

I.I 

Clams       .     .     . 

80.8 

10.6 

I.I 

5-2 

2-3 

Lobsters    .     .     . 

61.7 

30-7 

5-9 

•7 

.2 

.8 

Shrimps    .     .     . 

70.8 

254 

I. 

.2 

2.6 

CHAPTER  VIII 
EGGS 

EGGS  and  milk  are  sometimes  referred  to  as  the  two 
perfect  foods.  They  are  perfect  foods  for  the  chick  and 
the  calf  in  that  they  contain  all  the  elements  needed  for 
their  development  and  growth,  up  to  a  certain  period. 

While  cow's  milk  contains  the  nutritive  ingredients  in 
the  right  proportion  for  the  calf,  its  nutritive  ratio  being 
i  :  4,  it  differs  widely  from  human  milk,  not  in  composi- 
tion, but  in  the  relation  of  the  tissue  building  to  heat 
.and  energy-yielding  ingredients,  the  ratio  of  human  milk 
being  i :  10.  Eggs  are  a  perfect  food  for  the  chick  until  it 
is  hatched,  when  it  begins  to  eat  carbohydrate  foods  im- 
mediately. 

The  egg  is  a  unique  food  substance,  in  that  it  contains 
every  element  that  goes  into  the  bone,  muscle,  and  blood 
of  the  chicken,  and,  as  it  is  easily  analyzed,  it  furnishes 
valuable  information  as  to  what  substances  are  needed  for 
these  tissues  and  in  what  form  the  substances  occur.  From 
the  time  the  embryo  starts  to  develop  until  the  chicken  is 
hatched,  no  other  food  goes  into  the  making  of  its  tissues  ; 
the  heat  is  secured  from  outside  sources.  In  the  develop- 
ment of  the  calf  this  cannot  be  studied  so  easily. 

Composition.  —  Eggs  contain  about  74  per  cent  water, 
14.5  per  cent  protein,  10.5  per  cent  fat,  and  i  per  cent  min- 
eral matter. 

174 


EGGS  175 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  i :  1.6,  which  shows  that  it  ranks 
with  meat  as  a  concentrated  tissue-building  food.  Eggs 
are  even  better  than  meat  as  tissue-building  material, 
because  they  contain  more  kinds  of  proteins,  and  hence 
more  mineral  matter  in  organic  form,  than  meats.  Their 
great  food  value  has  been  learned  in  the  feeding  of  people 
suffering  from  tuberculosis,  and  their  gain  in  health  and 
weight. 

The  white  of  egg  contains  albumins,  globulins,  and  gly- 
coproteins,  the  great  bulk  of  the  white  consisting  of  albumin 
in  the  form  of  ovalbumin. 

The  yolk  contains  albumin  and  nucleoalbumin  in  the 
form  of  vitellin  and  lecithin,  the  two  latter  probably  in 
combination.  The  mineral  matter  in  egg  consists  of  phos- 
phorus, calcium,  iron,  lime,  sulphur,  potassium,  and  mag- 
nesium, occurring  in  the  organic  compounds.  The  fat  is 
found  in  the  yolk  and  occurs  in  combination  with  the  pro- 
teins in  a  sort  of  emulsion. 

When  bacteria  enter  the  egg  through  the  porous  shell, 
the  albumin  is  decomposed  and  sulphureted  hydrogen  and 
phosphureted  hydrogen  are  formed,  causing  the  odor  of 
stale  eggs. 

From  the  variety  of  proteins  and  the  abundance  of  min- 
eral salts  it  is  seen  that  eggs  are  a  valuable  tissue-building 
food  as  well  as  a  source  of  iron  for  the  blood,  calcium  for 
bone,  and  phosphorus  for  cell  growth. 

Structure.  —  In  structure,  eggs  consist  of  a  porous  shell, 
lined  with  a  thin  membrane.  Beneath  the  shell  is  the 
white,  and  in  the  center  is  the  yolk,  which  has  attached  to  it 
the  embryo.  The  yolk,  with  its  nucleoalbumin,  fat,  leci- 
thin, calcium,  iron,  and  phosphorus,  furnishes  the  first  food 
for  the  developing  chick  and  shows  in  what  form  and  pro- 


1 76  EGGS 

portion  these  elements  are  needed  for  the  young  animal. 
It  is  said  that  by  the  term  strictly  fresh  egg,  is  meant  an 
egg  not  over  twenty-four  hours  old.  When  the  egg  is  laid, 
it  is  alkaline ;  but  microorganisms  enter  through  the  po- 
rous shell,  and  changes  in  the  albumin  take  place  very  soon. 
For  this  reason  some  method  should  be  used  to  exclude  the 
air  or  to  keep  the  eggs  at  so  low  a  temperature  that  the 
microorganisms  cannot  develop.  The  latter  method  is 
the  most  successful. 

Storage.  —  In  the  home,  eggs  are  packed  in  sawdust, 
ashes,  sand,  oats,  or  wrapped  in  paper.  They  are  also 
coated  with  fat,  oil,  varnish,  or  vaseline,  or  immersed  in 
water  glass  (silicate  of  soda)  diluted  with  water.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  packing  or  coating  is  clean  and  has 
no  odor,  for  eggs  take  both  flavor  and  odor  very  readily 
and  are  then  unfit  for  use.  It  has  been  found,  by  repeated 
experiment,  that  vaseline  coats  the  shell  thoroughly  and 
preserves  the  eggs,  but  that  water  glass  is  more  satisfactory 
for  keeping  qualities  and  also  for  ease  in  applying. 

Cold  Storage.  —  Few  people  realize  that  eggs  will  never 
be  what  is  termed  cheap  again,  because  with  the  development 
of  the  cold  storage  industry  and  improved  shipping  facilities, 
they  have  changed  from  a  perishable  commodity,  that  must 
be  marketed  and  consumed  within  a  limited  time,  to  a 
commodity  that  may  be  stored  and  kept  until  times  of 
scarcity.  This  is  true  of  many  foods  that  were  once  cheap 
in  season.  Cold  storage  keeps  the  price  up  and  makes  it 
possible  to  procure  eggs  throughout  the  year.  The  eggs 
are  packed  in  cases  and  placed  in  cold  storage,  and  kept  at 
a  temperature  just  above  freezing,  32-40°  F.  and  not 
removed  from  cold  storage  until  they  are  to  be  used.  In 
this  way  they  may  be  kept  a  year. 


Ham 


Loin 


IJ 


Ribs 
CUTS  OF  PORK 


EGGS  177 

Test  for  Freshness.  —  Some  of  the  common  tests  for 
freshness  are  by  no  means  always  to  be  relied  upon,  but, 
while  they  do  not  always  tell  the  stage  of  deterioration, 
they  are  an  index  of  freshness.  The  water  in  eggs  evapo- 
rates, and  air  takes  its  place.  Therefore  a  fresh  egg  is  heavier 
than  a  stale  one.  Fresh  eggs  sink  in  water  when  immersed, 
old  ones  float.  If  an  old  egg  is  shaken,  it  rattles,  showing 
that  evaporation  has  taken  place.  The  usual  method 
employed  in  stores  to  test  the  freshness  of  eggs  is  by  can- 
dling. A  paper  is  rolled  until  the  diameter  is  that  of  the 
egg.  The  egg  is  placed  at  one  end  and  held  toward  the 
light.  Examined  through  the  other  end  of  the  paper,  a 
fresh  egg  looks  clear  and  unclouded,  a  stale  egg  shows  dark 
spots  or  it  is  dark  clouded  throughout. 

Effect  of  Heat  on  Eggs.  —  The  protein  in  egg  is  mostly 
pure  albumin,  and  this  is  coagulated  at  about  160°  F. 
into  a  flocculent  and  tender  mass,  that  may  be  readily 
broken  up.  If  the  temperature  is  increased  to  the  boil- 
ing point  (212°  F.),  the  albumin  becomes  hard  and 
tough  and  easily  escapes  mastication  and  is  not  so  easily 
digested  in  the  stomach.  The  yolk  of  the  egg  coagulates 
at  a  lower  temperature  than  160°  F.  Eggs  may  be  coagu- 
lated throughout  in  a  soft  jellylike  mass  at  a  temperature 
between  i6o°-i7o°  F.  Cooking  above  that  temperature 
makes  the  albumin  tough  and  leathery.  This  point  should 
be  noted  in  cooking  all  dishes  where  egg  is  used  as  a  thick- 
ening agent,  as  in  custards,  puddings,  etc.  It  should  be 
noted  also  that  when  albumin  is  cooked  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture it  shrinks  and  spoils  the  appearance  of  the  dish,  which 
it  should  have  made  smooth  and  velvety.  When  corn 
starch  is  also  used  in  a  pudding,  the  milk  should  be 
boiled  first.  After  the  mixture  has  thickened,  the  egg 

CONLEY,  N.  &  D.  —  12 


1 78  EGGS 

should  be  added  and  the  food  cooked  at  a  low  tem- 
perature. 

The  best  method  of  cooking  eggs  seems  to  be  the  fol- 
lowing :  Place  them  in  a  tightly  covered  saucepan  in 
boiling  water  —  212°  F. ;  then  remove  the  saucepan  from 
the  fire  and  allow  8  minutes  for  soft-boiled  eggs  and  30 
minutes  for  hard-boiled.  By  this  method  the  heat  coag- 
ulates the  albumin  into  a  soft  and  tender  mass  and  also 
thickens  the  yolk.  When  eggs  are  boiled,  the  albumin  is 
coagulated  so  quickly  into  a  tough  coating  that  the  heat 
does  not  penetrate  to  the  yolk.  The  white  is  hard  and 
leathery,  while  the  yolk  is  soft. 

Digestibility.  —  As  has  been  stated  before,  digestibility 
may  mean  ease  of  digestion  or  thoroughness  of  digestion. 
For  the  invalid  or  inactive  person  the  factor  ease  of 
digestion  counts  for  much ;  for  the  average  working  man 
completeness  of  digestion,  or  how  much  of  a  food  the 
body  assimilates  and  makes  use  of,  is  the  all-important 
factor. 

Eggs  cooked  at  a  temperature  below  the  boiling  point 
are  more  easily  and  quickly  digested  in  the  stomach  than 
those  cooked  at  boiling  point.  This  is  because  gastric 
juice  can  more  readily  act  on  the  soft,  flaky  albumin  than 
on  the  tough,  leathery  albumin.  Experiments  on  the  in- 
dividual and  experiments  in  the  laboratory  bear  out  this 
statement.  As  to  intestinal  digestion  and  absorption  there 
seems  to  be  no  great  difference.  The  digestion  coefficient 
seems  to  be  the  same  in  all  cases,  no  matter  how  the  eggs 
are  cooked.  It  may  be  said  that  eggs  have  a  high  coeffi- 
cient of  digestion.  If  absorption  is  delayed,  decomposi- 
tion ensues  and  sulphureted  hydrogen  and  ammonia  are 
formed. 


EGGS  179 

Uses  of  Eggs.  —  Eggs  have  so  many  varied  uses  in  the 
diet  and  in  cooking,  that  it  is  well  to  enumerate  some  of 
them. 

Eggs,  being  rich  in  protein  and  fat,  are  a  tissue-building 
food  and  a  substitute  for  meat,  when  for  any  reason  meat 
is  not  used.  They  serve  as  a  food  for  the  sick,  because  they 
furnish  the  material  to  replace  the  tissues  in  available 
form.  When  properly  prepared,  they  are  easily  digested 
and  may  be  served  in  many  appetizing  ways. 

The  albumin  in  egg  gives  it  many  uses  in  cooking.  Food 
is  dipped  in  egg  before  frying  because  the  albumin  coagu- 
lates quickly  and  forms  a  crust,  and  this  retains  the  juices 
and  keeps  the  fat  from  reaching  the  food.  When  eggs  are 
blended  with  milk  or  any  other  liqui,d,  the  whole  mass 
thickens  and  becomes  smooth,  as  in  the  making  of  custard. 
Eggs  are  used  to  hold  the  particles  of  flour  together  and 
form  hollow  shells,  as  in  making  of  cream  puffs  and  pop- 
overs.  They  can  be  used  to  clarify  foods  by  entangling 
the  solid  particles,  as  in  making  coffee.  They  are  used 
extensively  to  make  foods  light  and  fluffy,  as  in  cake  and 
omelet.  When  heat  is  applied,  the  tiny  air  bubbles  expand 
and  the  albumin  coagulates,  and  this  leaves  the  food  light 
and  porous.  The  heat  must  be  gentle,  because  if  the 
albumin  sets  before  the  bubbles  expand  the  food  will  be 
tough. 

The  use  to  which  the  egg  is  to  be  put  governs  the  amount 
of  beating  that  is  needed.  In  custards,  white  and  yolk 
should  be  merely  blended,  because  the  presence  of  air  is 
undesirable.  In  a  light  cake  the  eggs  should  be  beaten  stiff 
and  dry,i  to  make  the  cake  light  by  inclosing  all  the  air 
possible, 


CHAPTER   IX 
MILK  AND   ITS  PRODUCTS 

COMPOSITION  OF  MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

MINERAL 
MAITER 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Whole  milk    .     .     . 

87.0 

3-3 

4.0 

5-0 

•7 

Skim  milk      .     .     . 

90-5 

3-4 

•3 

5-1 

•7 

Buttermilk     .     .     . 

QI.O 

3-0 

•5 

4.8 

•7 

Condensed  milk 

26.9 

8.8 

8-3 

54-1 

1.9 

Cream       .... 

74.0 

2.5 

18.5 

4-5 

•5 

Chemical  Composition.  —  Milk  is  an  opaque  white,  or 
yellowish  white,  fluid  of  sweetish  taste,  and  when  freshly 
drawn  has  an  alkaline  reaction.  It  is  an  animal  product 
containing  fat,  proteins,  lactose,  mineral  matter,  and  water. 
The  fat  is  held  in  suspension  in  the  form  of  minute  globules. 
When  the  milk  stands  for  any  length  of  time  these  globules 
rise  to  the  surface  as  cream.  The  amount  of  fat  in  milk 
varies  with  age,  feeding,  breed  of  cow.  It  ranges  from 
3.5  per  cent  to  5  or  6  per  cent.  Milk  containing  less  than 
2.5  per  cent  fat  is  declared  by  state  law  as  unfit  for  use. 

The  chief  fats  in  milk  are  stearin,  palmitin,  and  olein. 
The  proteins  in  milk  (about  3.5  per  cent)  are  in  the  form  of 
lactalbumin,  serum  globulin,  and  casein.  The  albumin 
and  globulin  are  in  solution,  and  the  casein  is  in  combination 

180 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  181 

with  the  phosphate  of  lime.  It  is  precipitated  by  the  pres- 
ence of  acid,  or  by  the  addition  of  acid,  as  when  lactic  acid 
is  formed  in  the  souring  of  milk.  The  ferment  rennin  also 
causes  the  coagulation  of  the  casein.  The  casein  forms 
about  six  sevenths  of  the  proteins  in  milk. 

The  albumin  and  the  globulin  are  coagulated  by  heat, 
i58°-i67°  F.,  casein  is  coagulated  by  acid  or  ferment. 
The  carbohydrate  of  milk,  about  5  per  cent,  is  in  solution 
in  the  form  of  lactose  or  milk  sugar.  Part  of  it  is  changed 
to  lactic  acid  by  the  bacteria  which  cause  the  souring  of 
milk.  The  mineral  salts  in  milk  are  phosphates  and  chlo- 
rides, of  lime,  potash,  and  soda.  The  lime  salts  are  valuable 
for  bone  material  for  the  infant,  and  are  essential  for  coagu- 
lation. 

Nutritive  Ratio  and  Fuel  Value.  —  The  nutritive  ratio 
of  milk  is  1:4,  which  shows  that  it  ranks  as  a  tissue-build- 
ing food.  It  is,  however,  87  per  cent  water,  and  i  pound  of 
it  will  yield  but  310  calories  of  heat.  In  order  to  live  on 
milk  alone  the  average  man  would  have  to  consume  about 
5  quarts  of  milk  daily  to  supply  the  energy  which  he  would 
need.  Milk  should  not  be  considered  as  a  beverage,  how- 
ever, but  should  be  reckoned  as  part  of  the  nutritive  in- 
gredients of  any  meal,  for  it  furnishes  a  means  of  adding 
protein  and  fat  to  the  diet. 

Effect  of  Heat  on  Milk. —  Heat  (212°  F.),  coagulates 
the  lactalbumin  and  globulin  in  milk,  and  this  entangles 
some  of  the  casein  and  fat  globules,  and  they  rise  to  the  sur- 
face, forming  the  skin  of  boiled  milk.  It  also  melts  the  fat 
so  that  the  globules  coalesce  and  form  a  cream  of  peculiar 
appearance. 

Effect  of  Bacteria  on  Milk.  —  Probably  no  other  food 
takes  up  odors  and  impurities  so  readily  as  does  milk.  For 


182  MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 

this  reason  great  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  it  does  not 
become  contaminated.  Milk,  as  freshly  drawn  from  the 
cow,  is  probably  free  from  bacteria;  but,  in  spite  of  careful 
handling,  hair,  dust,  and  dirt  from  the  cow's  udder,  or 
from  the  milker,  or  impurities  from  pail  or  cans  may  enter 
the  milk  and  bring  with  them  numbers  of  bacteria.  These 
bacteria  grow  with  astounding  rapidity.  Not  all  the  bac- 
teria found  in  milk  are  harmful ;  some  are  even  desirable 
under  certain  conditions,  as  in  cheese  and  butter  making ; 
a  very  few  kinds  may  produce  disease.  But  even  though 
the  bacteria  may  not  be  harmful  from  the  standpoint  of 
health,  milk  should  be  handled  in  a  way  to  make  it  a  clean 
and  wholesome  product  and  to  prevent  its  souring.  The 
ordinary  bacteria  found  in  milk  thrive  best  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  75°-9o°  F. ;  they  are  probably  all  killed  at  tem- 
peratures between  150°  F.  and  i6o°F.  They  are  rendered 
inert  if  milk  is  held  40°  F.  The  ideal  handling  of  milk, 
then,  would  consist  of  having  clean  cows,  clean  milkers,  and 
clean  stables,  bottling  it  in  sterilized  bottles,  and  keeping 
it  at  a  temperature  of  less  than  50°  F.  until  ready  to  use. 
Methods  of  rendering  milk  sterile  will  be  considered  later. 

Souring  of  Milk.  -  -  The  bacteria  which  cause  the  souring 
of  milk  are  called  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  because  they  feed 
on  the  sugar  in  the  milk  and  change  it  to  lactic  acid.  The 
acid  precipitates  the  casein  or  renders  it  insoluble,  forming 
what  is  called  the  curd  of  sour  milk.  Many  bacteria  can- 
not grow  in  an  acid  medium,  and  hence  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  activity  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  checks  the  growth 
of  other  forms,  less  desirable. 

When  sour  milk  stands,  or  is  shaken,  the  curd  breaks  up 
into  small  particles  and  a  clear  liquid  called  whey  separates 
from  it.  These  particles  of  curd  are  easily  acted  upon  by 


MILK  AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  183 

the  gastric  juice,  and  so  sour  milk  and  buttermilk  are  more 
easily  digested  than  fresh  milk. 

Digestion  of  Milk.  —  The  digestion  of  milk  begins  in 
the  stomach,  where  the  ferment  rennin  coagulates  the 
casein  in  a  solid  clot.  The  clot  differs  from  that  formed  in 
souring  in  that  it  is  tougher  and  harder  for  the  digestive 
juices  to  act  upon,  while  the  curd  in  sour  milk  is  flaky.  It 
is  thought  that  rennin  chemically  changes  the  casein  by 
splitting  it  into  two  proteins,  while  the  lactic  acid  simply 
precipitates  it.  The  pepsin  in  the  gastric  juice  acts  on  the 
proteins,  and  digestion  is  completed  in  the  small  intestine, 
where  the  protein,  fat,  and  sugar  are  all  acted  on  by  the 
pancreatic  ferments.  The  coefficient  of  digestibility  de- 
pends on  several  factors. 

With  infants  and  young  children,  the  digestion  of  milk  is 
fairly  complete,  probably  because  it  is  the  natural  food  for 
the  young  animal  and  contains  the  nutrients  in  the  right 
proportion  and  form  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  body  at  this 
time.  Not  only  does  it  contain  the  right  amount  of  protein, 
fat,  and  carbohydrate,  but  also  the  right  amount  of  mineral 
matter  needed  for  bone,  muscle,  and  blood ;  the  only  notice- 
able lack  is  in  a  proper  supply  of  iron.  The  lack  of  iron  is 
not  important  to  the  infant,  because  it  has  an  excess  of 
iron  stored  in  its  body  at  birth;  but  it  should  be  considered 
when  milk  is  given  to  older  children,  and  foods  containing 
iron  should  be  given,  because  iron  is  needed  for  blood  and 
muscle  tissue. 

For  the  adult,  milk  contains  too  much  water.  It  has  too 
high  a  protein  ratio,  and  has  no  indigestible  fiber  to  stimulate 
peristalsis.  It  is  constipating  for  this  reason,  If  taken 
with  other  foods,  or  as  an  ingredient  in  foods,  it  has  a  high 
nutritive  value.  When  milk  is  taken  alone  by  the  adult, 


184  MILK  AND    ITS   PRODUCTS 

only  90  per  cent  of  it  is  digested;  if  taken  with  bread  and 
other  foods,  nearly  99  per  cent  is  assimilated.  This  is  prob- 
ably due  to  the  fact  that  taken  alone  milk  clots  in  a  firm 
leathery  clot  which  tends  to  resist  digestion.  If  mixed  with 
other  foods,  the  clot  is  smaller  and  less  firm,  and  juices  can 
penetrate  it  more  easily.  For  this  reason  milk  is  often  di- 
luted with  barley  water  or  oatmeal  water.  Milk  should 
never  be  taken  in  large  mouthfuls,  but  should  be  slowly 
sipped. 

Adulteration  of  Milk.  —  Milk  varies  so  greatly  in  the 
amount  of  solids  or  nutritive  ingredients  which  it  contains 
(from  10  to  1 6  per  cent)  that  there  is  a  great  chance  for 
adulteration.  The  fat  is  so  valuable  for  cream  or  butter 
making,  that  there  is  a  great  temptation  to  remove  all  or 
part  of  it,  and  sell  what  is  left  as  whole  milk.  The  diffi- 
culty or  cost  of  handling  it  in  such  a  way  that  the  number 
of  bacteria  are  reduced  to  minimum,  and  the  milk  kept 
sweet  until  it  is  ready  for  consumption,  has  led  to  the  em- 
ployment of  various  means  of  checking  the  growth  of  or- 
ganisms, some  legitimate,  others,  as  the  use  of  chemical 
preservatives,  harmful,  at  least  to  children.  Finally  the 
importance  of  milk  and  its  products  as  food,  and  the  enor- 
mous quantity  consumed  (furnisjiing  one  sixth  of  the  total 
food  of  an  average  family),  have  led  to  a  desire  to  profit 
by  placing  an  inferior  article  on  the  market.  On  the  other 
hand,  because  milk  furnishes  almost  the  sole  food  for  in- 
fants and  because  the  percentage  of  infant  mortality  de- 
pends in  a  great  measure  upon  the  pureness  of  the  milk 
supply,  many  laws  have  been  passed  to  secure  a  pure  and 
wholesome  product. 

The  commonest  method  of  adulteration  is  to  add  water, 
and  thus  reduce  the  solids.  The  specific  gravity  of  milk  is 


MILK  AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  185 

1.029-1.034.  If  water  is  added,  that  will  lower  the  specific 
gravity  and  the  adulteration  can  be  detected.  Cream  is 
lighter  than  milk,  however,  and  if  part  of  the  cream  is  also 
removed,  the  specific  gravity  will  remain  the  same. 

Professor  Babcock,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  dis- 
covered a  way  in  which  the  amount  of  fat  can  be  readily 
found,  and,  as  the  amount  of  fat  is  a  most  valuable  index  of 
the  amount  of  other  solids  also,  it  is  a  very  reliable  test  and 
universally  used  by  the  farmer  to  test  his  herd,  and  at  the 
creameries  as  a  standard  for  purchasing  milk.  With  the 
Babcock  test,  the  sample  of  milk  is  put  into  a  pipette  and 
sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  dissolve  all  the  solids  except  the 
fat.  The  fat  is  then  separated  by  centrifugal  action,  and, 
as  it  rises  in  the  stem  of  the  pipette,  it  may  be  easily  and 
accurately  measured. 

The  chemical  preservatives  added  to  milk  to  kill  or  retard 
the  growth  of  bacteria  are  boric  acid,  formalin,  and  salicylic 
acid.  They  may  not  affect  the  digestion  of  the  grown  per- 
son, but  they  are  injurious  to  infants,  and  what  is  worse, 
they  conceal  filth  and  filthy  methods  of  handling  the  milk. 

Keeping  Milk  Sweet  and  Wholesome.  —  The  first  con- 
sideration is  to  see  that  the  milk  comes  from  healthy  cows 
that  are  kept  in  sanitary  stables,  and  that  nothing  comes 
in  contact  with  it  that  will  pollute  it  in  any  way.  It  should 
be  distributed  in  sterilized  bottles  so  that  no  dust  or  dirt 
may  enter  it  before  it  reaches  the  consumer.  The  vessels 
in  which  the  housewife  keeps  the  milk  should  be  clean  and 
should  be  kept  covered,  so  as  to  exclude  air  and  odors.  It 
should  be  kept  at  a  temperature  below  50°  F.,  and  should 
be  used  the  same  day  it  is  purchased.  Pure  milk  will  not 
keep  much  longer  than  two  days.  Milk  that  keeps  longer 
should  be  regarded  with  suspicion. 


i86  MILK  AND   ITS  PRODUCTS 

The  best  method  of  securing  a  pure  supply  of  milk  is  to 
see  that  it  is  produced  under  sanitary  conditions  and  from 
healthy  cows.  When  there  is  danger  that  the  milk  is  not 
pure,  two  methods  are  employed  to  keep  it  sweet  for  chil- 
dren, or  to  render  it  safe  in  case  of  danger  from  pathogenic 
bacteria.  Epidemics  of  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  and  ty- 
phoid have  been  traced  to  a  polluted  milk  supply,  and  pre- 
cautions should  be  taken  to  avoid  danger  to  infants  and 
children. 

Pasteurization.  —  The  first  and  probably  the  better 
method  is  called  pasteurization.  It  consists  of  heating  the 
milk  to  a  temperature  of  from  155°  to  167°  F.,  for  twenty 
minutes  and  then  rapidly  cooling  it  to  50°  F.  or  less,  and 
then  bottling  it.  By  this  method  no  chemical  changes 
take  place  in  the  constituents  of  the  milk,  and  all  bacteria, 
except  the  spore-producing  kind,  are  killed.  Undesirable 
bacteria  grow  more  rapidly  in  pasteurized  milk  than  in 
raw  milk,  because  the  lactic  acid  bacteria,  which  would 
destroy  them  or  hold  them  in  check,  have  been  destroyed 
by  heat.  The  objection  to  pasteurized  milk  is  that  dealers 
are  not  so  careful  in  securing  a  pure  product  because  they 
rely  on  pasteurization  to  destroy  bacteria. 

Sterilization.  —  The  second  method,  sterilization,  consists 
in  boiling  the  milk  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and  by 
repeating  the  process  if  it  is  deemed  necessary.  This 
method  practically  destroys  the  bacteria,  but  changes  the 
milk  to  boiled  milk  and  is  objectionable  for  that  reason. 

Condensed  Milk.  —  To  secure  a  supply  of  milk  where  it 
is  impossible  to  get  fresh  milk,  milk  is  evaporated  in  vacuum 
pans  to  one  third  or  one  fourth  its  original  bulk,  and  sealed  in 
air-tight  cans  in  which  it  will  keep  indefinitely.  Sometimes 
cane  sugar  is  added  to  increase  the  amount  of  solids  and  also 


MILK  AND   ITS    PRODUCTS  187 

to  enhance  its  keeping  qualities.  When  it  is  to  be  used, 
twice  or  three  times  its  bulk  of  water  is  added,  and  it  serves 
practically  the  same  purposes  as  fresh  milk.  The  unsweet- 
ened brand  serves  as  a  better  food  for  infants  than 
the  sweetened  varieties,  because  so  much  cane  sugar  is 
undesirable. 

Cream  and  Skim  Milk.  —  When  milk  is  allowed  to  stand 
undisturbed,  the  fat  globules  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 
constituents  and  come  to  the  surface  in  the  form  of  cream, 
which  may  be  removed  by  skimming.  This  separation  of 
fat  is  now  accomplished  by  the  use  of  the  separator.  It 
is  a  machine  which  causes  the  milk  to  rotate  rapidly.  The 
milk,  being  heavier,  is  thrown  outward  and  the  cream  is 
forced  to  the  center.  Separating  is  done  as  soon  as  the 
milk  is  drawn,  while  by  the  other  method  the  milk  is 
allowed  to  stand  in  open  pans. 

Pasteurized  cream  and  separated  cream  do  not  whip  so 
readily  as  hand-skimmed  cream,  probably  because  some  of 
the  calcium  salts  are  lost  in  the  process.  This  may  be  over- 
come by  the  addition  of  viscogen,  a  solution  of  lime  and 
sugar  that  seems  to  add  viscosity  to  cream.  Cream  con- 
tains from  15  to  30  per  cent  fat.  Most  state  laws  require 
that  it  shall  contain  18  per  cent.  It  should  contain  25  per 
cent  for  whipping  purposes. 

Skim  Milk.  Composition  and  Nutritive  Value.  —  Skim 
milk  contains  all  the  nutritive  ingredients  found  in  whole 
milk,  except  the  fat,  and  in  nearly  the  same  proportion. 
Animal  protein  is  the  most  expensive  of  all  food  nutrients 
and  the  most  valuable.  Skim  milk  contains  3.4  per  cent 
protein,  which  makes  it  a  cheap  tissue-building  food,  if  it 
can  be  purchased  as  skim  milk.  If  the  average  housewife 
had  any  idea  of  the  food  value  and  uses  of  skim  milk,  it 


i88  MILK  AND   ITS   PRODUCTS 

could  be  marketed,  because,  when  the  cream  is  separated 
from  the  milk,  every  dairyman  has  skim  milk  as  a  by-prod- 
uct. Better  still,  the  whole  milk  could  be  purchased  and 
the  cream  removed  for  use  as  cream,  and  the  remainder 
used  where  whole  milk  was  formerly  used.  This  would 
materially  decrease  the  cost  of  milk  in  the  average  family, 
for  cream  is  an  expensive  food. 

Uses  of  Skim  Milk.  —  Where  milk  enters  into  the  com- 
position of  any  food  in  cooking,  fat  in  some  form  is  usually 
added  also,  and  no  account  is  taken  of  the  fat  already  pres- 
ent in  the  milk,  as  in  white  sauce,  cream  soups,  cakes,  etc. 
These  foods  could  all  be  prepared  from  skim  milk  because 
the  loss  of  the  cream  is  made  up  in  the  fat  used.  As  will  be 
seen  from  the  study  of  dietaries,  too  much  fat  is  invariably 
taken,  and  by  the  use  of  skim  milk  in  cooking  this  amount 
could  be  reduced  without  loss  in  flavor  and  it  would  give 
a  better-balanced  food. 

Place  of  Milk  in  the  Diet.  —  Milk  contains  the  four  classes 
of  nutrients  in  nearly  the  right  proportion  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  body;  but  it  lacks  enough  carbohydrate  to 
make  it  a  balanced  food,  and  it  needs  bulk  to  stimulate 
peristalsis.  With  the  addition  of  some  carbohydrate  food 
it  forms  a  valuable  food  at  a  low  cost. 

To  show  how  the  food  requirements  for  lunch  or  supper 
may  be  supplied  by  milk  and  potato,  the  nutritive  value  of 
potato  soup  is  given  below.  The  quantity  here  given  will 
furnish  one  fourth  of  all  food  required  for  an  average  person 
for  one  day.  Celery,  or  asparagus,  or  any  cream  soup, 
prepared  from  roots,  tubers,  or  green  vegetables,  may  be 
substituted  for  potato  soup,  but  rice  should  be  added  as  a 
thickening  agent  and  to  bring  up  the  carbohydrate  con- 
tent. 


MILK  AND   ITS   PRODUCTS 
NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  POTATO  SOUP 


189 


FOOD 

WEIGHT 

CALORIES 
PROTEIN 

CALORIES  FAT 

CALORIES 
CARBOHYDRATE 

Potato      .     . 

Jib. 

2O 

2 

164 

Milk    .     .     . 

lib. 

60 

162 

91 

Butter      .     . 

\  oz. 

I 

107 

Flour  .     .     . 

J  oz. 

3 

I 

21 

Salt  and  on- 

ion juice    . 

.  .  . 

.  . 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

Bread       .     . 

I  OZ. 

10 

3 

60 

Total     . 

94 

275 

336 

Protein,  94  calories;  fat  and  carbohydrates,  611  calories. 


COMPOSITION  OF  PRODUCTS  OF  MILK 


Butter: 

Per  Cent 

Water      . 

.      II. 

Protein    . 

I. 

Cream  :             Per  Cent 

Fat      .     . 

•      IS- 

Water      .     .     74. 

C.  H.  .     . 

Protein    .     .      2.5 

M.  M.      . 

•        3- 

Fat      ...     18.5 

Buttermilk  : 

Whole  milk  :     Per  Cent 
Water      .     .     87. 

C.  H.       .     .      4.5 
M.  M.      .     .        .5 

Water      . 
Protein    . 

.      91. 
•         3- 

Protein    .     .      3.3 

Fat      .     . 

•5 

Fat     ...      4. 

C.  H.       . 

.       4.8 

C  H             .5. 

M.  M.     . 

•7 

M.  M.     .     .        .7 

Casein  curd  : 

Water      . 

.     72. 

(Butter  making.) 

Protein    . 
Fat      .     . 

.     20.9 
i. 

C.  H.       . 

•       4-3 

M.  M.      . 

.       1.8 

Skim  Milk: 

Whey: 

Water      .     .     90. 

Water      . 

•     93- 

Protein    .     .      3.4 

Protein    . 

i. 

Fat      ...        .3 

Fat      .     . 

•3 

C.  H.       .     .      5.1 

C.  H. 

•       5- 

M.  M.      .     .        .7 

M.  M.     . 

•7 

I90 


MILK  AND   ITS   PRODUCTS 


COMPOSITION  OF   PRODUCTS   OF  MILK  — Continued 

Whole  Milk : 

(Cheese  making.) 


Cheese  : 

Water      . 

-     33-5 

Protein    . 

.     26. 

Fat      .     . 

•     35-5 

C.  H.       . 

•      i-S 

M.  M.      . 

•      3-5 

Whey: 

Water      . 

•     93- 

Protein    . 

i. 

Fat      .     . 

•3 

C.  H. 

-      5- 

M.  M.     . 

•7 

PRODUCTS  OF   MILK 

Butter  Making.  —  Cream  can  be  separated  from  the  skim 
milk.  It  is  sold  for  table  use  or  is  churned  into  butter.  In 
butter  making  the  cream  separates  into  butter  fat  and  butter- 
milk. 

Skim  milk  can  be  separated  into  curd  and  whey. 

Cheese  Making.  —  Generally,  in  cheese  making  the  whole 
milk  is  used.  It  is  coagulated  by  rennet  and  after  it  is  firm 
enough  the  curd  is  cut  and  the  whey  is  drawn  off.  The 
fat  and  casein  are  in  the  cheese  curd. 

Butter  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  forms  of  fat  because  it 
is  the  most  easily  digested  of  all  fats.  This  is  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  it  contains  a  high  per  cent  of  olein,  the 
form  in  which  fat  occurs  in  the  human  body. 

Butter  contains  n  per  cent  water,  i  per  cent  protein, 
85  per  cent  of  fat,  and  3  per  cent  mineral  matter.  Its  fuel 
value  is  3400  calories.  The  amount  of  water  and  fat  vary 
in  different  samples  of  butter.  Some  butter  may  contain  as 
high  as  40  per  cent  of  water.  United  States  food  laws,  how- 
ever, make  it  unlawful  to  sell  butter  containing  less  than  82.5 
per  cent  butter  fat  and  not  more  than  16  per  cent  water. 


MILK  AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  191 

The  3  per  cent  mineral  matter,  which  is  added  to  help  pre- 
serve the  butter  from  decomposition  and  to  flavor  it,  is 
common  salt. 

Some  people  like  butter  without  salt.  In  this  case  the 
butter  must  be  eaten  soon  after  it  is  made,  as  it  spoils  quickly. 
Butter  owes  its  peculiar  flavor  to  the  fatty  acids  which  it 
contains,  principally  butyric  and  caproic. 

Nutritive  Value.  —  Because  of  lack  of  protein,  butter  is 
not  a  tissue-building  food.  Because  of  the  high  percent- 
age of  fat,  its  fuel  value  being  3400  calories  per  pound,  it 
is  a  valuable  source  of  energy,  easily  available,  easily  di- 
gested, and  the  amount  ordinarily  consumed  by  the  average 
person  would  supply  all  the  fat  needed  in  the  diet.  At 
present  prices,  however,  it  is  an  expensive  food,  and  other 
fats  must  be  relied  upon  as  sources  of  energy. 

Butter  Making.  —  When  cream  is  removed  from  the  milk, 
the  fat  is  in  minute  globules.  The  cream  is  churned  or 
beaten  to  cause  the  globules  to  coalesce.  The  cream  is 
usually  allowed  to  stand  until  it  ripens  or  until  enough 
lactic  acid  bacteria  have  developed  to  give  it  the  desired 
flavor.  The  churn  is  scalded  to  get  rid  of  undesirable  bac- 
teria, and  cooled.  The  proper  temperature  of  cream  for 
churning  is  between  52°  and  62°  F.  If  the  cream  is  cool,  less 
fat  is  lost  in  churning  and  the  butter  will  have  a  better 
texture  and  there  is  less  labor  in  making.  As  soon  as  the 
butter  forms  it  should  be  removed  from  the  buttermilk 
and  washed  with  water  at  a  temperature  45°-5o°  F.  The 
washing  removes  the  buttermilk  and  also  hardens  the  fat. 
If  the  buttermilk  remains  in  the  butter,  the  casein  in  it  de- 
composes and  the  butter  spoils. 

After  one  or  more  washings,  salt  is  added  to  preserve  and 
flavor  the  butter.  It  must  be  thoroughly  worked  in  so  that 


MILK  AND   ITS   PRODUCTS 

the  butter  will  not  be  streaked.  Butter  is  usually  colored 
with  anatto  or  some  other  harmless  coloring,  because  a 
colored  butter  markets  better  than  an  uncolored. 

Butter  is  often  made  from  fresh  cream,  or  sweet  cream. 
It  is  more  delicately  flavored  than  that  made  from  ripened 
cream  and  there  is  a  growing  demand  for  it.  Probably  no 
other  article  of  food  affects  the  character  of  a  meal  as  does 
the  quality  of  butter,  and  probably  no  other  article  of  food 
has  been  so  ignorantly  and  carelessly  made  as  butter,  at  a 
great  loss  to  producers  and  distributors.  Rancid  butter 
should  never  be  used  in  cooking.  It  is  best  to  use  pure  lard 
or  a  mixture,  or  oleomargarine.  Modern  dairies  have 
supplanted  the  home  dairies,  and  the  result  is  a  cleaner 
product,  produced  under  state  supervision. 

Renovated  Butter.  —  Poor  or  rancid  butter  is  sometimes 
subjected  to  a  process  called  renovating.  The  butter  is 
melted,  and  this  separates  the  fat  from  the  curd  and  brine. 
The  fat  is  then  removed  and  aerated  to  get  rid  of  odors, 
mixed  with  fresh  milk  again  to  get  the  milk  flavor,  drained, 
salted,  worked,  and  repacked. 

Buttermilk  is  the  part  of  cream  left  in  the  churn  after 
the  butter  is  removed.  It  has  the  same  composition  as 
skim  milk  and  the  same  nutritive  value,  being  a  cheap  tissue- 
building  food.  Because  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  are  pres- 
ent, the  casein  is  precipitated  in  fine  curd  and  so  it  is  easily 
digested.  It  is  also  thought  that  the  presence  of  the  lactic 
acid  bacteria  in  the  stomach  retards  the  growth  of  other 
undesirable  bacteria  and  to  this  are  due  some  of  the  benefits 
derived  from  the  use  of  buttermilk.  It  is  much  used  in 
diseases  of  stomach,  etc.,  where  milk  in  an  easily  digested 
form  is  desired.  It  has  the  same  nutritive  ratio  as  skim 
milk  and  can  be  used  in  place  of  it  in  cooking. 


MILK  AND   ITS   PRODUCTS 


193 


Oleomargarine.  —  Oleomargarine  is  a  manufactured  prod- 
uct much  like  butter  in  physical  properties  and  chemical 
composition.  It  is  considered  more  wholesome  than  poor 
butter.  It  is  made  from  beef  suet,  leaf  lard,  and  milk.  The 
beef  suet  is  treated  so  as  to  separate  the  olein  from  the  pal- 
matin  and  stearin,  and  the  olein,  a  granular  yellow  substance, 
forms  the  basis  for  the  oleomargarine.  Leaf  lard  is  treated 
in  the  same  way  and  yields  a  fat  called  neutral.  The 
olein  and  neutral  are  melted,  and  mixed  with  milk  to  give 
a  butter  flavor.  It  is  then  salted,  and  sold  as  oleomargarine. 
If  butter  is  added  in  place  of  milk  to  give  the  butter  flavor, 
the  compound  is  called  butterine. 


CHEESE 
COMPOSITION  OF  CHEESE 


KINDS  OF  CHEESE 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBOHY- 
DRATE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Cheese,  cheddar  . 
Cheese,  full  cream 
Roquefort  .  .  . 
Swiss  

Per  Cent 

27.4 
34-2 
39-3 

11  4. 

Per  Cent 

27.7 

25.9 
22.6 
27  6 

Per  Cent 
36.8 

33-7 
29-5 

•2  A    Q 

Per  Cent 
4.1 
2.4 

1.8 
i  3 

Per  Cent 
4.0 

3-8 
6.8 
4.8 

Neufchatel  .  .  . 
Cottage  .... 

5O.O 
72.0 

I8.7 
20.Q 

274 

1.0 

i-5 

4-3 

2.4 

1.8 

Composition  and  Nutritive  Value.  —  From  its  composi- 
tion, cheese  ranks  first  as  a  tissue-building  food,  for  no 
other  food  has  so  high  a  nutritive  value.  Beef  from 
the  round  contains  18  per  cent  protein,  mutton  13 
per  cent,  chicken  15  per  cent,  dried  beans  22  per  cent, 
bread  10  per  cent,  mackerel  17  per  cent,  while  cheese  con- 
tains 22  per  cent.  The  protein  in  cheese  is  ready  for 

CONLEY,  N.  &  D. —  13 


194  MILK  AND   ITS   PRODUCTS 

consumption,  while  in  many  foods,  as  beans  and  peas, 
the  figures  show  the  amount  of  protein  in  the  food  in  a  dry 
state,  and  during  cooking  much  water  is  absorbed  so  the 
proportion  of  protein  is  decreased.  In  vegetable  foods  the 
protein  is  surrounded  by  cellulose,  and  some  of  it  escapes 
digestion  and  cannot  be  counted  as  available  nutrition. 
No  other  food  contains  so  much  protein  in  so  compact 
form  and  is  so  cheap  a  tissue-building  food  as  is  cheese.  If 
more  cheese  were  used  as  the  principal  protein  in  a  meal, 
it  would  lessen  the  consumption  of  meat  and  cheapen  the 
cost  of  the  meal.  The  reason  why,  in  this  country  at  least, 
cheese  has  not  found  its  true  place  is  because  we  have  not 
had  to  consider  seriously  the  cost  of  meat  as  yet,  and  because 
we  have  not  learned  how  to  serve  cheese  in  a  form  that 
makes  it  easily  digested. 

Digestibility.  —  The  value  of  any  food  depends  not  only 
on  its  nutritive  ratio  and  cost,  but  also  on  its  digestibility. 
It  is  on  this  point  that  cheese  compares  unfavorably  with 
other  protein  foods.  Cheese  is  a  concentrated  food.  It 
has  but  33  per  cent  water.  It  contains  no  refuse,  and  has 
no  starch  or  cellulose  to  furnish  bulk  and  stimulate  the 
walls  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  so  that  the  digestive 
fluids  will  be  secreted,  or  to  hasten  the  passage  of  foods  along 
the  intestines.  Fats  and  carbohydrates  in  nearly  equal 
proportion  are  so  thoroughly  mixed  that  the  gastric  juice 
cannot  act  on  the  protein.  A  ferment  in  the  gastric  juice 
may  act  on  emulsified  fat,  but  it  cannot  act  on  the  fat  in 
cheese.  It  is  difficult  for  the  digestive  juices  to  act  on  any 
food  so  concentrated;  but,  in  addition  to  this,  it  is  a  soft 
food  and  is  apt  to  escape  mastication  and  be  swallowed  in 
lumps.  Not  alone  that,  but  in  some  cheese  the  protein  has 
not  been  broken  down,  or  made  more  soluble,  and  it  is  hard 


MILK  AND   ITS  PRODUCTS  195 

to  digest.  The  main  work  of  the  digestion  of  cheese  is  done 
in  the  small  intestine;  and  if  it  reaches  the  intestine  without 
creating  any  disturbances  in  the  stomach,  it  will  be  thor- 
oughly digested.  Experiments  made  by  Snyder  show  that 
cheese  is  completely  digested  and  has  a  high  coefficient  of 
digestibility,  93.36  per  cent  protein,  and  94.50  per  cent  fat. 
It  is  said  that  bicarbonate  of  soda  added  to  cheese  increases 
the  ease  of  digestibility  because  the  alkali  neutralizes  the  fatty 
acid  and  makes  the  casein  soluble.  It  should  be  said,  then, 
that  while  cheese  is  hard  to  digest  in  the  stomach,  it  is  not 
indigestible,  but  is  fairly  well  digested  by  the  average  person. 

The  difficulty,  then,  is  more  apt  to  be  due  to  the  consumer 
than  to  any  fault  in  the  food.  It  becomes  a  question  of 
how  to  prepare  the  cheapest  and  most  concentrated  form  of 
protein  food  so  that  it  will  leave  the  stomach  before  fer- 
mentation sets  in. 

Well-ripened  cheese,  cheese  in  which  the  proteins  have 
been  partially  broken  down  by  bacterial  action,  is  the  best 
kind.  It  should  be  thoroughly  masticated,  or,  better  still, 
grated  and  mixed  with  a  carbohydrate  food  to  give  it  bulk. 
It  should  not  be  eaten  in  too  great  quantities,  because  it 
is  a  concentrated  food,  and  it  would  overtax  the  digestive 
powers  of  the  individual.  Europeans  who  consume  great 
quantities  of  cheese  as  their  main  source  of  protein  food, 
because  meat  is  too  expensive,  have  learned  how  to  prepare 
it.  With  us  it  is  too  often  considered  a  condiment  and  is 
eaten  at  the  end  of  a  meal  which  has  already  contained  too 
much  protein  and  fat.  Toasted  cheese  is  hard  to  digest 
because  some  of  the  water  evaporates,  the  fat  melts,  and  the 
casein  becomes  hard. 

Place  of  Cheese  in  the  Diet.  —  Cheese  furnishes  but 
.3  per  cent  of  the  total  American  food  materials.  This 


196  MILK  AND   ITS  PRODUCTS 

figure  shows  that  it  is  not  used  so  much  as  it  should  be. 
It  should  often  serve  as  the  protein  portion  of  a  meal  in 
place  of  meat.  It  may  be  added  to  omelet,  macaroni,  any 
creamed  vegetable,  or  soup  or  cereal.  It  may  often  be 
served  as  cheese  fondu  or  souffle  or  rarebit,  when  mixed 
with  milk,  bread  crumbs,  and  eggs.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
cook  the  cheese  dishes  at  a  low  temperature  because  heat 
toughens  the  casein  and  melts  and  sometimes  decomposes 
the  fat. 

Classification  of  Cheese.  —  No  one  classification  would 
include  all  kinds  of  cheese.  They  may  be  classified  as  hard 
and  soft,  depending  on  the  amount  of  water  in  them;  as 
cream,  full  cream,  or  skimmed  milk  cheese,  depending  on 
whether  some  fat  has  been  removed  or  added  to  the  milk ; 
they  may  be  named  because  of  the  peculiar  fermentation 
that  takes  place  during  ripening  and  brings  about  the  dis- 
tinctive flavor ;  or  they  might  be  classified  under  the  name 
of  the  country  where  they  are  produced,  as  Edam  in  Hol- 
land, Roquefort  in  France,  and  Parmesan  in  Italy.  What- 
ever the  difference  may  be,  the  process  of  cheese  making  is 
practically  the  same  in  every  case,  and  includes  the  addition 
of  rennet  and  coagulation,  cutting  the  curd,  removal  of 
water,  and  ripening  by  bacterial  action. 

The  cheese  most  extensively  used,  most  widely  known,  the 
cheapest  and  best  for  all  purposes,  is  the  Cheddar.  There 
are  two  varieties  made  in  this  country,  American  Cheddar 
for  export  trade,  and  American  for  home  consumption. 

They  are  practically  the  same  except  that  the  cheese 
for  home  consumption  is  softer,  milder,  does  not  keep  so  well, 
contains  more  water,  and  has  not  so  good  flavor  because  it 
is  not  so  well  cured.  It  is  to  be  deplored  that  the  American 
consumer  does  not  appreciate  and  demand  the  better  cheese. 


MILK  AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  197 

Manufacture.  —  Cheddar  cheese  is  made  from  whole  fresh 
milk  which  is  allowed  to  ripen  slightly,  and  then  coagulated 
by  the  addition  of  rennet.  Rennet  acts  best  at  a  tem- 
perature of  86°-9o°  F.,  and  must  be  thoroughly  mixed 
throughout  the  milk  so  as  to  form  an  even  coagulum.  It 
is  stirred  gently  at  first  so  that  the  fat  will  not  rise  to  the 
surface  but  will  be  mixed  thoroughly  with  the  casein.  After 
it  begins  to  coagulate,  it  is  allowed  to  stand  until  the  curd  is 
firm  enough  to  cut. 

Formerly  the  curd  was  broken  into  pieces  with  the  hand 
or  with  a  sort  of  rake,  but  now  it  is  cut  with  a  cutter,  and 
then  slowly  heated  to  98°-ioo°  F.,  to  separate  the  curd 
from  the  whey.  Part  of  the  whey  is  then  drawn  off,  and 
part  is  left  in  until  a  certain  amount  of  lactic  acid  is  devel- 
oped, and  then  the  rest  is  drawn  off.  The'  next  process, 
called  cheddaring  or  matting,  consists  of  cutting  the  curd 
into  blocks  and  piling  them  so  as  to  expel  any  traces  of 
the  whey.  It  is  then  ground  into  pieces  small  enough  for 
salt  to  penetrate,  salted,  and  put  into  the  press  ready  to 
shape.  The  pressing  expels  water  and  unites  the  particles 
of  curd  into  a  solid  mass. 

It  is  then  ready  for  curing,  which  is  the  most  important 
process  in  cheese  making,  because  it  makes  or  mars  the 
cheese.  Curing  or  ripening  of  cheese  is  brought  about  by 
the  action  of  certain  bacteria  which  decompose  the  insol- 
uble casein  into  soluble  proteins  and  break  them  down  into 
amido  compounds,  peptones,  and  albumoses.  The  casein 
in  fresh  cheese  is  in  an  insoluble  condition  and  very  difficult 
to  digest ;  the  bacteria  convert  it  into  a  more  soluble  form. 
The  differences  in  odor  and  flavor  of  cheese  are  due  to  the 
peculiar  kind  of  bacteria  introduced  during  ripening.  Cheese 
should  ripen  at  a  low  temperature  at  least  from  2  to  4 


198  MILK  AND   ITS   PRODUCTS 

months,  before  it  is  fit  for  consumption.  The  fresh  India 
rubber  variety  so  common  in  our  markets  is  not  well  cured 
and  is  hard  to  digest.  Cheese  ripened  at  too  high  a  tem- 
perature or  containing  undesirable  bacteria  has  a  strong 
flavor.  Good  cheese  should  crumble,  have  a  sharp  biting 
taste,  and  have  uniform  holes. 

Cheese  curd  should  contain  practically  all  the  nutrition 
in  milk  except  sugar  and  mineral  matter.  It  contains  all 
the  protein  and  practically  all  of  the  fat,  a  small  quantity 
of  carbohydrate  and  mineral  matter,  and  is  one  third  water. 
Whey  contains  the  sugar  and  mineral  matter.  From  this 
it  will  be  seen  that  cheese  contains  most  of  the  valuable 
constituents  of  milk  in  concentrated  form. 


KINDS  OF  CHEESE 

Hard  Cheese.  —  Most  of  the  forms  of  cheese  are  either 
Cheddar  or  American  in  slightly  different  form.  The  small 
cheeses  are  called  picnic  or  Young  America  and  are  mild  in 
flavor.  Pineapple  cheese  is  an  American  Cheddar  pressed 
firm  and  solid  in  the  shape  of  a  pineapple.  Sage  cheese 
is  American  Cheddar  with  sage  incorporated  into  the  cheese. 
Cheese  sold  in  glass  jars  is  Cheddar  reduced  to  a  soft  pulp 
with  fat  and  flavor  added.  Limburger  depends  for  its 
odor  and  flavor  on  the  form  of  bacteria  introduced  during 
ripening,  and  this  ripening  is  allowed  to  continue  until  the 
whole  mass  is  soft.  Limburger  is  made  from  whole  and 
skim  milk  and  is  ripe  when  it  is  about  one  third  soft.  It 
has  a  reddish  yellow  rind.  Swiss  cheese  owes  its  pe- 
culiar texture  and  flavor  to  a  special  kind  of  fermentation, 
the  gas  generated  producing  the  characteristic  holes.  Edam 
is  round  like  a  cannon  ball  and  the  rind  is  stained  red.  It 


MILK   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  199 

is  made  from  partly  skimmed  milk  and  as  firm  and  hard  as 
possible.  It  is  not  ripe  until  6  to  8  months  old.  It  is  made 
in  Holland.  Parmesan,  a  very  hard  Italian  cheese,  is 
made  from  skim  milk.  It  is  usually  sold  grated.  It  is  so 
hard  that  it  will  keep  indefinitely  in  any  climate.  Stilton 
is  an  English  cheese  which  is  allowed  to  ripen  until  blue  mold 
grows  from  the  interior  throughout  the  cheese. 

Soft  Cheese.  —  Neufchatel  is  a  soft  cheese  made  from 
uncured  curd.  It  is  smooth,  mildly  acid,  and  will  not  keep 
long.  It  is  packed  in  little  cylindrical  pieces  covered  with 
tin  foil.  Roquefort  is  a  soft  cheese  formerly  made  from 
goat's  milk.  The  bacteria  which  bring  about  the  peculiar 
fermentation  are  cultivated  on  bread  crumbs,  and  these 
crumbs  are  mixed  with  the  curd.  The  curing  is  done  in 
limestone  caves  of  uniform  temperature,  to  develop  the 
right  fermentation.  It  is  soft  and  permeated  with  mold. 
Camembert  is  a  soft  cheese,  and  when  ripe  is  coated  with 
reddish  brown  mold,  and  is  of  a  soft,  pasty  consistency  with 
a  characteristic  odor  and  flavor.  Cottage  cheese  is  soft  home- 
made cheese.  It  is  made  from  sour  skim  milk.  The  milk 
is  heated  to  about  100°  F.,  and  allowed  to  stand  until  the  curd 
and  whey  separate.  The  curd  is  salted,  and  cream  is  often 
added  to  give  the  cheese  flavor  and  to  soften  it. 

There  are  hundreds  of  varieties  of  cheese  which  the  con- 
noisseur is  familiar  with.  Those  given  above  are  the  best- 
known  varieties,  and  serve  to  show  that  they  differ  mainly 
in  the  amount  of  water,  and  in  the  peculiar  fermentation 
which  develops  the  characteristic  flavor  and  odor.  Any 
fermentation  which  makes  the  proteins  more  soluble  im- 
proves the  character  of  the  cheese.  They  differ  also  in  the 
amount  of  fat,  which  depends  on  whether  they  are  made 
from  whole  or  skim  milk. 


REFERENCES 

ATWATER.     Chemical   Composition   of   American   Food   Materials. 

Bulletin  No.  28,  office  of  Exp.  Sta.  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 
ATWATER.     Principles  of  Nutrition  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Foods. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  142. 
CHITTENDEN.    Nutrition  of  Man. 
CHITTENDEN.    Physiological  Economy  in  Nutrition. 
HAMMERSTEN.    Textbook  of  Physiological  Chemistry. 
HOWELL.     Textbook  of  Physiology. 
HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 
KNIGHT.     Food  and  Its  Functions. 
LUSK.     Elements  of  Nutrition. 
LEFFMAN  AND  BEAM.    Food  Analysis. 
PERKIN  AND  KIPPING.    Organic  Chemistry. 
SHERMAN.     Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition. 
SYMON.     Physiological  Chemistry. 
WING.    Milk  and  its  Products. 

FARMER'S  BULLETINS 

Use  of  Milk  as  a  Food,  Bacteria  in  Milk. 

Fish  as  a  Food. 

Bread  and  Bread  Making. 

Beans,  Peas,  and  Other  Legumes  as  Food. 

Eggs  and  their  Uses  as  Food. 

Poultry  as  Food. 

Cereal  Breakfast  Foods. 

Use  of  Fruit  as  Food. 

Potatoes  and  Other  Root  Crops  as  Food. 

The  Food  Value  of  Corn  and  Corn  Products. 

Nuts  and  their  Uses  as  Food. 

Food  Customs  and  Diet  in  American  Homes. 

Wheat  Flour  and  Bread. 

200 


INDEX 


Absorption,  34,  40. 

Albumin,  13,  18,  19,  21,  160,  161,  168, 
170,  i7Si  J77,  182. 

composition  of,  13. 

forms  of,  40. 

occurrence  in  body,  13. 
Albuminoids,  18,  21,  22,  35. 

effect  of  heat  on,  22. 

forms  of,  22. 

occurrence,  22. 
Aleurone  cells,  112. 
Alkalinity  of  blood,  27,  34,  41,  [42,  62, 

146,  147. 

American  cheese,  198. 
Amylopsin,  25,  36,  39. 
Amy  loses,  25. 
Anemia,  14. 
Animal  foods,  156. 

classification,  156. 

composition  of,  156. 

uses  in  diet,  156. 

(See  Meats  and  Fish.) 
Asparagin,  137. 
At  water,  energy  requirements,  47. 

method  of  calculating  energy  require- 
ments, 48,  49. 

nutritive  ratio,  51. 

protein  requirements,  47. 

standard  used,  69. 

Balanced  meals,  58. 

dangers  of  poorly,  60. 

practical  value  of,  63-65. 

reasons  for,  58. 
Barley,  121,  126. 
Beans,  128,  129. 

composition  of,  131. 

digestibility  of,  131. 

kidney,  129. 

lima,  129. 

navy,  129. 


Beans,  string,  129,  131. 

structure  of,  131. 
Beef,  163-166,  167. 

cuts  of,  163. 

myosin  in,  165. 

table  of  composition  of  cuts,  165. 

(See  Meats.) 
Beverages,  152. 
Bile,  39. 

Bomb  calorimeter,  46. 
Bran  in  wheat,  112,  113,  114. 
Breakfast,  menus,  79,  82,  85,  87,  90,  93, 
96. 

planning  a,  67. 

time  for  preparation,  77,  79,  82. 
Breakfast  foods,  121,  122. 

classes  of,  123. 
Buckwheat,  121,  125,  126. 
Butter,  190. 

calories  per  pound,  99. 

making,  191. 

milk,  192. 

nutritive  value  of,  191. 

renovated,  192. 
Butterine,  193. 

Calcium,  33,  41. 

foods  containing,  56. 

in  flour,  grains,  and  bread,  117. 

per  cent  in  body,  12. 
Calorie,  16,  46. 

loo  portion,  67. 
Calories,  how  calculated  in  any  food,  70. 

per  pound  in  foods  as  prepared,   101- 
102. 

per  pound  in  foods  as  purchased,  99- 
100. 

per  recipe,  100. 

Calorimeter  respiration,  48,  49. 
Camembert  cheese,  199. 
Carbohydrates,  13,  23. 


201 


202 


INDEX 


Carbohydrates,  classification  of,  23,  24, 

25- 

digestion  of,  38,  40. 
energy  available  in,  47. 
fuel  value  of,  46,  47. 
in  animal  foods,  105. 
in  cereals,  109,  no,  in,  114—117,  121, 

126,  127. 
in  cheese,  193. 
in  chocolate  and  cocoa,  154. 
in  foods  as  prepared,  100-102. 
in  foods  as  purchased,  99-100. 
in  fruits,  147,  149. 
in  green  vegetables,  145.    . 
in  legumes,  129,  132. 
in  milk,  188,  189. 
in  roots  and  tubers,  134,  136,  137,  142, 

143- 

in  vegetable  foods,  106,  107. 
needed  in  diet,  61. 
nutritive  ratio,  51. 
occurrence  in  foods,  13. 
proportion  to  fat,  54. 
uses  in  body,  23,  24. 
Carbon,  per  cent  in  body,  12. 
Carbon  dioxide,  17,  22,  41,  42,  161. 
Casein,  18,  21,  180,  181,  183,  195. 
Cells,  9,  10,  n. 

wheat,  no. 

Cellulose,  10,  23,  115,  116. 
effect  of  heat  on,  26. 
in  breakfast  foods,  123. 
in  cereals,  124. 
in  corn,  119. 
in  fruits,  147,  149. 

in  green  vegetables,  45,  146,  147,  149. 
in  legumes,  130,  131,  132. 
in  potatoes,  136,  137,  139. 
in  wheat,  109,  112,  115,  116,  117. 
uses  in  the  body,  26. 
Cereal  products,  122. 
Cerealin,  112,  113. 
Cereals,  121. 

breakfast  foods,  122. 
calories  per  pound,  101. 
composition  of,  109. 
cooking  of,  124. 
food  value  of,  71. 
importance  of,  in  diet,  108. 
manufactured  products,  122. 
mineral  matter  in,  122. 
place  in  diet,  124. 


I  Cereals,  relative  importance  of,  160. 
Cheddar  cheese,  198. 
Cheese,  193. 
calories  per  pound,  99. 
Cheddar,  198. 
classification  of,  196. 
composition,  193. 
digestibility,  194. 
food  value,  72. 
hard,  198. 
kinds  of,  198. 
manufacture  of,  197. 
nutritive  value,  193. 
table  of  composition,  193. 
Chemical  action,  36. 
Chemical  change,  14. 

example  of,  15. 
Chittenden,  energy  requirements,  48. 

protein  requirements,  45. 
Chlorides,  33,  62. 
Chlorine,  41. 

per  cent  in  body,  12. 
Chocolate,  153. 

composition  of,  154. 
food  value  of,  154. 
place  in  diet,  155. 
Chocolate  creams,  155. 
Chromoprotein,  19,  35,  41. 
Coagulation  temperatures,  18. 
of  protein,  21. 
ocoa,  153. 

composition  of,  154. 
food  value  of,  155. 
Coefficient  of  digestibility,  54,  155. 
Coffee,  153. 
Collagen,  18,  22,  160. 
Compounds,  defined,  12. 
examples  of,  12. 
occurrence  in  body,  13. 
occurrence  in  foods,  13. 
Condiments,  155. 
onnective  tissue,  in  cells,  10,  23. 
in  meat,  160,  161,  169,  172. 
Constipation,  65,  115. 
orn,  118,  127. 
composition  of,  118,  119. 
green,  119. 
popcorn,  119,  127. 
products  of,  119. 
proteins  in,  119. 
structure  of,  118,  119. 
orn  flour,  120. 


INDEX 


203 


Corn  meal,  120. 
Corn  sirup,  120. 
Corn  starch,  120. 
Cottage  cheese,  199. 

Decomposition  products,  of  cell  metabo- 
lism, 41. 

of  protein,  22,  60. 
Dextrin,  25,  26. 
Diastase,  in. 
Diet,  variety  in,  58. 
Dietary  studies,  value  of,  103. 
Digestion,  36-41. 

in  intestines,  39. 

in  mouth,  37. 

in  stomach,  38. 
Dinner,  menus,  77,  80,  83,  86,  88,  91,  94, 

97- 

planning  of,  68. 
Domestic  science,  8. 
Dried  vegetables,  139. 

Edam  cheese,  198. 
Eggs,  174. 

calories  per  pound,  99. 

composition  of,  174. 

cooking  of,  178. 

digestibility  of,  178. 

effect  of  heat  on,  177. 

mineral  matter  in,  175. 

nutritive  ratio  of,  175. 

proteins  in,  175. 

storage  of,  176. 

structure  of,  175. 

tests  for  freshness,  177. 

uses  of,  179. 
Elastin,  18,  22. 
Elements,  12. 

base-forming,  34,  42. 

denned,  12. 

examples  of,  12. 

found  in  body,  13. 

occurrence  in  foods,  13. 
Embryo  in  wheat,  1 1 1 . 
Endosperm,  of  wheat,  in,  112,  113,  114. 

of  corn,  119. 

End  products,  nitrogenous,  17,  42. 
Energy,  15. 

amount  in  foods,  46. 

amount  needed,  47. 

potential,  46. 

uses  in  body,  8. 


Energy  requirements  calculated,  48,  49, 

50. 
Extractives,  18,  21,  23. 

in  meat,  160,  161. 

uses  in  body,  23. 

Factors  used  in  calculating  diet,  50. 
Fat,  composition  of,  13,  30. 

occurrence  in  body,  13. 
Fats,  23,  156,  162, 164,  166, 170,  174,  175, 
180,  181,  185. 

absorption  of,  40. 

calories  per  pound,  100. 

commonest,  31. 

decomposition  products  of,  31. 

digestion  of,  40. 

fuel  value  of,  46,  47,  72. 

in  cells,  n. 

in  vegetable  cells,  n. 

occurrence  in  body,  30. 

occurrence  in  foods,  30. 

oxidation  of,  40. 
Ferments,  coagulation,  37. 

concerned  with  digestion,  36. 

denned,  36. 
Fibrin,  18,  21. 
Fibrinogen,  21. 
Fish,  170. 

calories  per  pound,  99. 

classification,  170. 

composition  of,  171. 

digestibility  of,  171. 

food  value,  72. 

nutritive  value,  171. 

table  of  composition,  173. 
Flour,  113. 

bread-making  properties  of,  113. 

composition  of,  116. 

Graham,  114,  126. 

milling  of,  113,  114. 

mineral  matter  in,  117. 

variations  of,  114. 
Flours,  comparison  of  different,  116,  117. 

nutrients  digested  in  various,  117. 
Fluorine,  per  cent  in  body,  12. 
Foods,  animal,  105,  106,  156. 

as  prepared  for  cooking,  102. 

as  purchased,  99,  100. 

classified,  9,  106. 

complete,  defined,  n. 

cost  of,  58. 

defined,  8. 


204 


INDEX 


Foods,  digestibility  of,  52,  53,  54- 

equivalent  nutritive  values,  71,  72. 

excessive  consumption  of  starchy,  63. 

fuel  value  of,  45. 

nitrogenous,  18. 

non-nitrogenous,  23. 

nutritive  value  of,  43,  52. 

relative  importance  of,  104. 

requirements,  43,  49,  50. 

study,  object  of,  164. 

undigested,  40. 

uses  of,  ii. 

vegetable,  104,  106,  107. 
Fruit,  147. 

calories  per  pound,  102. 

composition  of,  147. 

food  value  of,  71,  148. 

place  in  diet,  148. 

preservation  of,  148. 

table  of  composition,  150. 
Fruits,  dried,  food  value,  72. 

table  of  composition,  150. 
Fuel  value  of  food,  45,  46,  47- 

Gastric  juice,  36,  38,  39. 
Germ,  wheat,  109,  in,  114. 
Gliadin,  109,  113. 
Glucose,  absorption  of,  40. 

commercial,  29. 

oxidation  of,  40. 

prepared,  120. 
Glucoses,  25. 

occurrence,  29. 
Glutelin,  20. 

Gluten  in  wheat,  18,  21, 109, 113- 
Glutenin,  109,  113. 
Glycogen,  27. 
Glycoprotein,  34. 
Green  vegetables,  145. 

calories  per  pound,  102. 

composition  of,  145,  146- 

nutritive  value  of,  145- 

place  in  diet,  146. 

table  of  composition,  145. 

uses  of,  146. 

Heat,  1 6. 

amount  given  off  in  oxidation,  46. 
bodily,  45,  46. 
foods  yield,  46: 
(See  Fuel.) 


tominy,  120,  122,  127. 
lydrochloric  acid,  33,  38,  39. 
Hydrogen,  per  cent  in  body,  12. 

ntestinal  digestion,  39,  40. 
ntestinal  juice,  36,  39. 
nvertin,  25,  36,  39. 
ron,  19,  24,  33,  41,  175,  183 

anemia  due  to  lack  of,  14. 

foods  containing,  56,  57. 

in  flour,  grain,  etc.,  117. 

in  green  vegetables,  146. 

lentils  contain,  130. 

occurrence  in  body,  13. 

per  cent  in  body,  12. 

when  assimilated,  14. 

Kreatin,  18,  23. 
Kreatinin,  18,  29. 

L,actose,  28. 
fermentation  of,  29. 
in  milk,  183. 
Langworthy,  energy  requirements,  48. 

protein  requirements,  45. 
Lecithin,  18,  23,  175. 

occurrence,  23. 
Lecithoprotein,  19,  23,  35,  41. 
Legumes,  128. 

calories  per  pound,  101. 

coefficient  of  digestibility,  132 

composition  of,  129. 

digestibility,  131,  132,  133- 

dried,  129. 

food  value,  71. 

fresh,  129. 

nutritive  value  of,  129,  130. 

structure  of,  132. 
Legumin,  18,  21. 

Lentil  soup,  nutritive  value  of,  133. 
Lentils,  129. 
Limburger  cheese,  198. 
Lime,  12,  24. 

composition  of,  13. 

in  milk,  181. 

lack  of,  how  shown,  14. 

occurrence  in  body,  13. 
Lunch,  planning  of,  69. 

Macaroni,  121. 
preparation  of,  121. 


INDEX 


205 


Magnesium,  24,  33,  34,  41,  175. 

per  cent  in  body,  12. 
Maltose,  25,  29. 
Marketing,  59. 
Meals,  66. 

measurements  for  planning,  69. 

planning  of,  66,  67-71. 

serving  of,  66. 

standard  used  for  planning,  69. 

(See  Balanced  Meals.) 
Meats,  156. 

albuminoids  in,  168. 

animal  foods  classified,  156. 

composition  of,  167. 

connective  tissue  in,  159,  160. 

digestibility  of,  160. 

diseased,  170. 

effect  of  heat  on,  168,  169,  170. 

excessive  consumption  of,  162. 

extractives  in,  168. 

fat  in,  158. 

food  value  of,  72,  161,  163. 

losses  in  cooking,  160. 

nitrogenous  foods  in,  168. 

nutritive  ratio  of,  162. 

parasites  in,  170. 

place  in  diet,  161-163. 

principles  involved  in  cooking,  168, 169. 

refuse  in,  158. 

similarity  and  difference,  157. 

structure  of,  159. 

table  of  composition,  157. 

(See  Beef.) 
Menus,  76-98. 

breakfast,  planning  a,  76. 

dinner,  planning  a,  77. 

supper,  planning  a,  78. 
Metabolism,  17,  41,  162. 
Milk,  180. 

adulteration  of,  184. 

calories  per  pound,  99. 

care  of,  185. 

composition  of,  180. 

condensed,  186. 

digestion  of,  183. 

effect  of  bacteria  on,  181,  182. 

effect  of  heat  on,  181. 

fats  in,  1 80. 

fuel  value  of,  181. 

in  bread  making,  117. 

mineral  matter  in,  181. 

nutritive  ratio  of,  181. 


Milk,  pasteurization  of,  186. 

proteins  in,  180. 

skim,  187. 

souring  of,  182. 

sterilization  of,  186. 

testing  of,  185. 

Mineral  matter,    estimated   amount  re- 
quired, 56. 

foods  richest  in,  56. 

importance  in  diet,  118. 

in  breakfast  foods,  122. 

in  wheat,  109,  in,  114,  115,  117. 
,    in  whole  grain,  123,  125. 

legumes  contain,  130. 

occurrence  in  foods,  33. 

occurrence  in  the  body,  33. 

uses  in  the  body,  9,  33,  41. 
Myosin,  18,  21,  160,  165. 
Myosinogen,  21. 

Neufchatel  cheese,  199. 
Nitrogen,  13,  43. 

amount  excreted  daily,  44,  45. 

bodily  loss  calculated,  44,  45. 

daily  intake,  44,  45. 

in  tissue-building  foods,  9. 

per  cent  in  albuminoids,  21. 

per  cent  in  proteins,  13,  20,  44. 

per  cent  in  the  body,  12,  33. 
Nitrogenous  equilibrium,  44,  45. 
Nitrogenous  foods  classified,  18. 
Non-nitrogenous  foods  classified,  23. 
Nucleoprotein,  19,  20,  34,  175. 
Nucleus,  composition  of,  10. 

function  of,  9. 
Nutritive  ratio,  48,  51,  72,  137. 

how  found,  51. 

of  cereals,  124. 

of  legumes,  129. 

of  milk,  51-52. 

Nutritive  value  of  potato  soup,  77. 
Nuts,  149. 

calories  per  pound,  102. 

table  of  composition,  151. 

Oatmeal,  122. 
Oats,  121,  126. 
Oils  and  fats,  24,  72. 

volatile,  24,  31,  135. 
Oleomargarine,  193. 
Organs  of  elimination,  41. 
Ossein,  18,  22. 


206 


INDEX 


Oxidation,  9,  16. 

of  cells,  1 6. 

of  fats  and  sugar,  17. 

products  of,  17. 
Oxygen,  per  cent  in  body,  12. 
Oysters,  172. 

Pancreatic  juice,  36,  39. 

Parasites  in  meat,  161. 

Parmesan  cheese,  199. 

Peanut  butter,  133. 

Peanuts,  129,  133. 

Peas,  129. 

Pectose,  23,  148. 

Pepsin,  36,  38,  39. 

Peptones,  21,  39,  40,  161. 

Peristalsis,  36,  38,  123. 

Peristaltic  movement,  38,  39. 

Phosphoalbumin,  41. 

Phosphorus,  19,  24,  33,  41,  42,  175. 

compound  proteins  contain,  113. 

foods  containing,  42. 

in  flours,  grains,  etc.,  117. 

in  albumins,  13. 

per  cent  in  body,  12. 
Plasma,  40. 
Potash,  24,  42. 
Potassium,  33,  34,  41,  175. 

foods  containing,  56. 

per  cent  in  body,  12. 
Potato,  sweet,  141. 
Potato  soup,  nutritive  value  of,  189. 
Potatoes,  134,  136. 

composition,  134,  136,  141. 

cooking  of,  142. 

digestibility,  139. 

mineral  salts  in,  137. 

nutritive  ratio  of,  137. 

place  in  diet,  139,  140,  142. 

preparation  of,  140. 

products  of,  138. 

selection,  135,  137. 

storage  of,  138. 

structure  of,  136. 
Products,  of  cereals,  122. 

of  milk,  170,  189. 
Protein,  9,  10,  18,  19. 

amount  needed  daily,  43,  45,  50,  60. 

as  fuel,  46,  47. 

chemical  formula  for,  19. 

coagulation  of,  21. 

composed  of,  9,  13,  20. 


Protein,  compound,  34. 

decomposition  products  of,  22,  60. 

denned  by  Chittenden,  19. 

derived,  34. 

digestibility  of,  53,  54. 

digestion  of,  38,  39,  40. 

end  products  of,  22,  162. 

excess  of,  60,  61. 

general  classification  of,  34. 

in  butter,  190. 

in  cereals,  71,  106,  108,  119,  125,  127. 

in  cheese,  72,  193,  196,  198. 

in  chocolate  and  cocoa,  154. 

in  eggs,  174,  175,  177,  179. 

in  fish,  171,  173. 

in  foods  as  prepared  for  cooking,  100- 
102. 

in  foods  as  purchased,  99,  100. 

in  legumes,  71,  106,  128,  133. 

in  meat,  72,  156-159,  160,  161,  165. 

in  milk,  72,  180,  183,  187,  189. 

in  milk  products,  189,  190. 

in  roots  and  tubers,  134,  135,  137,  139, 
140,  142. 

in  wheat,  113,  117,  157. 

lack  of,  60,  61. 

nutritive  ratio,  51,  52. 

occurrence  in  food,  13,  21. 

per  cent  of  nitrogen  in,  20. 

simple,  22,  34. 

true,  1 8,  20,  1 68. 

uses  of,  19,  21. 
Proteoses,  39. 
Protoplasm,  19. 

composition  of,  9,  10. 

function  in  cell,  9. 

in  animal  cells,  9. 

in  vegetable  cells,  n. 
Ptyalin,  36,  38. 

Rennin,  37,  38,  39,  183. 
Rice,  121,  122,  125,  127. 
Rickets,  12. 

Saliva,  36,  37,  38. 

Salt,  occurrence  in  body,  13,  24. 

Shellfish,  172,  173. 

Sherman,  energy  requirements,  48. 

protein  requirements,  45. 
Skim  milk,  187. 

composition  of,  187,  189. 

nutritive  value  of,  187. 


INDEX 


207 


Skim  milk,  uses  of,  188. 
Soda,  24,  42. 
Sodium,  41. 

foods  containing,  56. 

per  cent  in  the  body,  12. 
Solanin,  138. 
Spaghetti,  121. 
Starch,  23,  25,  26,  122. 

coefficient  of  digestibility,  27. 

composition  of,  24. 

digestion  of,  26. 

effect  of  heat  on,  25,  26. 

food  value,  27. 

glycogen  form  of,  27. 

in  potatoes,  140. 

in  vegetable  cells,  10,  n. 

solubility,  25. 

(See  Carbohydrates.) 
Starchy  roots  and  tubers,  134,  135. 
Steapsin,  36,  39. 
Stilton  cheese,  199. 
Succulent  roots  and  tubers,  142. 

place  in  diet,  143,  144. 

preparation,  143. 

selection,  143. 

storage,  143. 

table  of  composition,  143. 
Sucroses,  25,  28. 

action  of  ferments  on,  28. 

action  of  heat  on,  28. 

caramelization  of,  28. 

melting  point  of,  27. 
Sugar,  23,  25. 

calories  per  pound,  100. 

composition  of,  13. 

danger  of  excessive  consumption,  28, 
61,  63,  154. 

food  value,  28. 

glucose  form  of,  29. 

in  cells,  n. 

in  milk,  28,  182. 

in  sweet  potatoes,  141. 

occurrence  in  body,  13. 

(See  Carbohydrates.) 
Sulphur,  24,  33,  41. 

in  egg,  175. 

in  proteins,  57. 

per  cent  in  body,  12. 
Supper,  menus,  78,  81,  84,  87,  89,  92,  95, 
98. 

planning  of,  69. 
Sweet  potatoes,  134,  141. 


Sweet  potatoes,  composition  and  struc- 
ture, 141. 

cooking,  142. 

place  in  diet,  142. 
Swiss  cheese,  198. 
Syntonin,  165. 

Tables,  calories  in  foods  per  pound,  99- 

100. 

classification  of  nitrogenous  foods,  18. 
classification  of  non-nitrogenous  foods, 

23-24. 

classification  of  roots  and  tubers,  134. 
coefficient  of  digestibility  of  different 

foods,  132. 

composition  of  animal  foods,  156. 
composition  of  cereals,  109. 
composition  of  cereals  and  cereal  prod- 
ucts, 126. 

composition  of  cheese,  193. 
composition  of  cuts  of  beef,  165. 
composition  of  flours,  116. 
composition  of  fresh  fish,  173. 
composition  of  fruits,  150. 
composition  of  green  vegetables,  145. 
composition  of  legumes,  129. 
composition  of  meats,  157. 
composition  of  milk  and  its  products, 

1 80. 

composition  of  nuts,  151. 
composition  of  potatoes,  134. 
composition  of  products  of  milk,  189, 

190. 

composition  of  roots  and  tubers,  142. 
composition  of  wheat,  114. 
effect  of  heat  on  meat,  168. 
energy  requirements  in  calories,  48. 
equivalent  nutritive  values,  71,  72. 
estimated  amount  of  mineral  matter 

required  daily,  56. 

factors  used  in  calculating  meals,  50. 
foods    grouped    according    to    fairly 

equivalent  nutritive  values,  71,  72. 
foods  richest  in  mineral  matter,  56. 
general  classification  of  proteins,  34, 

35- 
hourly  outgo  of  energy  from  the  human 

body,  49. 

measurements  for  planning  meals,  72. 
mineral  matter  in  flours,  117. 
nitrogenous  foods  in  meat,  168. 
nutrients  in  different  flours,  117. 


208 


INDEX 


Tables,  per  cent  of  foods  consumed  in 

American  diet,  107. 
relative  richness  of  cereals  in  different 

ingredients,  no. 
Tea,  152. 

Temperature  of  body,  how  maintained,  45. 
Testing  of  milk,  185. 
Tissue  poisoning,  42. 
Trichina,  170. 
Trypsin,  36,  39. 
Typhoid  germs  in  oysters,  172. 

Urea,  17,  22,  42,  161. 

Vegetable  acids,  24,  25,  27,  42. 

in  fruits,  147,  149. 
Vegetable  foods,  9,  106,  134. 

relative  nutritive  value,  107. 
Vegetables,  food  value  of  green,  71,  175. 
Vitellin,  175. 

Waste,  elimination  of,  7,  17,  60,  62,  65, 
115,  149,  161. 


Water,  31. 

absorption  of,  32. 

amount  needed,  32,  61. 

composition  of,  12,  13. 

formation  in  body,    17,    22,    32,   41, 
161. 

in  cells,  10,  n. 

per  cent  in  body,  9,  32. 

per  cent  in  foods,  32. 

use  of  hot  water,  32. 

uses  of  water,  9,  32. 
Wheat,  121. 

composition  of,  110-112. 

detailed  study  of,  no. 

milling  of,  113. 

nutritive  value  of,  1 24. 

structure  of,  110-112. 

(See  Cereals.) 

Xanthin,  18,  23. 

Zein,  protein  in  corn,  119. 


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